This chapter reviews the International Development Co-operation action area of the Addis Ababa Action Agenda (AAAA) including progress, persistent challenges, and emerging areas as the international community prepares for the Fourth International Conference on Financing for Development (FfD4). It explores advancements in modernising official development assistance (ODA) and the recent creation of a more inclusive measurement framework with the introduction of the Total Official Support for Sustainable Development (TOSSD) framework. Persistent challenges such as unmet aid commitments, aid fragmentation, and insufficient gender equality funding are highlighted. Opportunities to strengthen development effectiveness, address multidimensional vulnerabilities, safeguard debt sustainability, and mobilise private sector resources for sustainable development, including through innovative finance and capacity building, are also presented.
Global Outlook on Financing for Sustainable Development 2025
Abstract
Key trends
Since 2015, total ODA provided by DAC member countries, including cross-border flows (CPA and humanitarian aid) and in-donor refugee costs, increased.
In 2023, total official development assistance (ODA) provided by DAC member countries rose to an all-time high of USD 223 billion in current prices or USD 194 billion in 2015 constant prices (OECD, 2024[1]).1 This marks a 48% increase from 2015, rising from USD 131 billion (Figure 4.1). Between 2015 and 2022, disbursements from non-DAC providers to developing countries increased by 51% from USD 10.9 billion to USD 16.5 billion (OECD, 2024[1]).2
Both country programmable aid (CPA) and humanitarian assistance continued to rise over the period to a combined total of USD 90 billion in 2023. CPA alone, the subset of ODA flows to partner countries that is programmable, reached USD 67 billion in 2023, a 27% increase since 2015, though if support to Ukraine is excluded, CPA remained stable over the period (OECD, 2024[2]).
In-donor refugee costs rose to USD 28 billion in 2023 and humanitarian ODA amounted USD 23 billion, reflecting increases of 134% and 70%, respectively, since 2015.
Note: Calculations based on disbursements, in 2015 constant prices. For total ODA, figures prior to 2018 are calculated using the cash flow method, while figures from 2018 onward are based on the grant equivalent method. Humanitarian and in-donor refugee costs are calculated based on net ODA. CPA calculations are derived from gross ODA.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on OECD (2024[2]), OECD Data Explorer, Creditor Reporting System (database), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/c
Since Addis, ODA from DAC members to vulnerable countries has lagged behind total spending.
Though total ODA from DAC members increased over 2015-23 (+48%), ODA to several of the most vulnerable country groups did not keep pace with this growth (+28% on average) (Figure 4.2). ODA to small island developing states (SIDS) is the exception and has increased faster than total ODA volumes over the period.
ODA to countries most in need grew overall by 28% on average, it increased by 25% for least developed countries (LDCs), 17% for fragile states and conflict-affected countries (FS), 8% for landlocked developing countries (LLDCs) and 62%for small island developing states (SIDS).
Note: Calculations based on disbursements, in 2015 constant prices. For total ODA, figures prior to 2018 are calculated using the cash flow method, while figures from 2018 onward are based on the grant equivalent method. Calculations for LDCs, LLDCs, SIDS and FS are based on net bilateral ODA and imputed multilateral ODA.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on OECD (2024[3]), OECD Data Explorer, DAC 2a table, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/w.
Available data on the measure of cross-border total official support for sustainable development (TOSSD) have improved.
Cross-border TOSSD flows, or pillar 1, amounted to USD 315 billion in 2022. These flows included bilateral and multilateral grants, concessional loans, non-concessional loans, and in-kind support including South-South and triangular co-operation (Figure 4.3).
Multilateral TOSSD cross-border flows increased from 57% of the total in 2019 to 61% of the total in 2022. Pillar 2 of TOSSD, which tracks global and regional support to international public goods, totalled USD 126 billion in 2022.
Note: Disbursements in 2022 constant prices. Country coverage varies by year (92 bilateral and multilateral reporters in 2019, 103 in 2020,112 in 2021 and 121 in 2022).
Source: International Forum on Total Official Support for Sustainable Development (2024[4]), TOSSD data visualisation tool (database) - Distribution of amounts by pillar, disbursements, 2022 constant prices. https://tossd.online/app.
Key performance indicators
|
|
In 2022, the 16 DAC members that had committed to the target provided on average 0.54% of their total gross national income (GNI) in ODA to developing countries. Most (27 of 31) DAC members made progress towards the target since 2018, and 5 members reached the target in 2023.1 In 2022, DAC members provided 0.08% on average, of their GNI to LDCs, below the target of 0.15% to 0.20% (OECD, 2024[5]).2 |
|
|
In 2022, developing countries received a total of USD 276.6 billion in official resources including USD 55.3 billion from mobilised private finance and USD 10.2 billion in private grants, according to data reported by 101 bilateral and multilateral providers (UN, 2024[6]). |
|
|
Though most bilateral providers have enhanced their development planning since 2011, the use of country-owned results frameworks and planning tools by bilateral development co-operation providers decreased from 64% in 2011 to 57% in 2018 (UN, 2024[6]). |
|
|
|
1. The ODA grant equivalent methodology is used from 2018 whereby only the “grant portion” of the loan, i.e. the amount “given” by lending below market rates, counts as ODA. This indicator is measured as a percentage of GNI using million USD constant prices, using 2021 as the base year.
2. Calculations exclude the European Union.
Selected quantifiable commitments. Annex Table 4.A.1 contains the full list.
Resource mobilisation potential
DAC members alone would have mobilised USD 200 billion in additional ODA in 2023 had they all committed to and met the 0.7% ODA/GNI target.3 It should be noted that not all DAC members have committed to this target.
Even under the optimistic scenario, additional multilateral development bank lending would amount to USD 40 billion per year – substantially less than the target set by the G20 Independent Expert Group (+USD 260 billion) (OECD, 2024[7]).
The modernisation of ODA has helped improve its integrity, transparency and accountability
The DAC’s modernisation of the ODA measure has clarified eligibility rules for peace and security expenditures and for expenditures for hosting refugees. It also introduced new debt relief reporting and grant equivalent4 accounting for financial instruments such as loans, guarantees and equities and adopted new reporting rules for private sector instruments, with data reported starting in 2023. These changes and accompanying safeguards that enhance the accuracy of the data as well as transparency and accountability reinforce the integrity of ODA and ensure that major changes in development co-operation, such as the diversification of financial instruments, are appropriately reflected in ODA reporting.
The creation of the TOSSD measurement framework and the International Forum on TOSSD has advanced transparency and comprehensive information on financial flows for sustainable development
Open, inclusive and transparent discussions led to the adoption of a new TOSSD measure that includes activity-level data on cross-border resource flows to developing countries (TOSSD Pillar 1), global and regional expenditures (TOSSD Pillar 2), and semi-aggregates on mobilised private finance. The UN Statistical Commission adopted TOSSD Pillar 1 as a data source for Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicator 17.3.1. Tracking of support for sustainable development in TOSSD has improved since 2019, with more data being captured and, in 2022, 121 reporters including 19 South-South providers (TOSSD, 2024[4]).
The independent International Forum on TOSSD was established in 2024. Its Steering Group is a balanced composition of traditional providers, dual providers and recipients, recipient countries, and multilateral organisations with strong involvement from the civil society and the UN.
The number of South-South co-operation activities reported to TOSSD increased by 64% between 2019-22 from 5 558 to 9 092. Triangular co-operation activities grew by 268%, from 382 to 1 404, over the same period (International Forum on Total Official Support for Sustainable Development, 2024[8]).
ODA/GNI commitments including to LDCs remain unmet
As of 2022, 16 DAC members had committed to achieving the 0.7% ODA/GNI target, and several of these commitments include a timeframe to achieve it by 2030 (OECD, 2023[9]). The weighted average of those members’ ODA to GNI ratio in 2021 was 0.54%.5 Several non-DAC countries have already achieved the 0.7% ODA/GNI target.6
While not all DAC members have committed to the target of 0.15% to 0.20% ODA/GNI for LDCs, the ratio on average among DAC members was stalled at about 0.09% ODA/GNI in 2022 (OECD, 2024[5]). In addition, LDCs received roughly the same volume of ODA, averaging USD 50 billion annually, over the period of 2015-22. Their 22% share of total ODA in 2022 was the smallest it had been since 1996, despite commitments to reverse the decline in ODA share (OECD, 2024[10]).
Development effectiveness, quality and impact accelerate delivery of the SDGs, but progress to improve these is mixed
A focus on quantitative targets alone does not suffice to achieve sustainable development. Proliferation and fragmentation of the aid system persists: more and more of recipient countries are dealing with 60 or more agencies; the number of ODA transactions rose sharply in 2019; and more than 200 international organisations and funds are channelling almost half of all ODA, leading to reduced project sizes and wider dispersion of resources (OECD, 2024[7]; OECD, 2023[9]). These and other challenges – in the use of country systems, trade-offs between country ownership and whole-of-society approaches, lack of donor co-ordination, and targeting the furthest behind – jeopardise the effectiveness, quality and impact of all types of development co-operation (OECD, 2023[9]). Strengthening the role of recipient countries in harmonising donor efforts, as emphasised in the principle of country ownership, is critical to ensuring alignment with national priorities and enhancing accountability. The development co-operation effectiveness principles provide guidance to address these challenges through evidence from the Global Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation (GPEDC) and its ongoing monitoring exercise, among others (OECD/UNDP, 2019[11]). Forthcoming guidance will also encourage more effective multilateral partnerships, greater coherence between bilateral and multilateral efforts, and support for the reform of the increasingly fragmented international development co-operation system. Sharing lessons on the effective use of all types of development co-operation, including South-South and triangular co-operation, is essential for mutual learning, identifying areas of common interest, and strengthening providers’ systems.
To establish more equitable partnerships and greater agency of national and local actors, some providers are exploring new policy commitments and institutional reforms. For example, several DAC members are working to accelerate locally led development – development co-operation that gives affected people and local actors, from national governments to grassroot organisations, more agency in the design and implementation of development co-operation.
The mobilisation of private sector resources by official intervention has increased significantly but still falls short of needs
Since 2015, the volume of private sector resources mobilised7 has more than doubled from USD 27.7 billion to USD 61.6 billion in 2022 (OECD, 2023[12]). Even this increase, however, falls far short of mobilising the trillions in financing needed in developing countries, and the amounts to date have largely bypassed countries most in need. Most of these resources (77%) are mobilised in middle-income countries (OECD, 2023[12]). The cumulative issuance of green, social, sustainability and sustainability-linked (GSSS) bonds totalled USD 5.3 trillion in 2023. (World Bank, 2024[13]). Yet, only 13% of all GSSS bonds were issued by entities in developing countries in 2022, and their share of the total market dropped to 5% in 2023 (OECD, 2024[14]). (More information on barriers and opportunities to mobilise the private sector is presented in Chapter 3 on domestic and international private business and finance.)
ODA in support of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls can be improved
The share of ODA with gender equality objectives has declined after nearly a decade of growth (OECD, 2024[15]). In 2021-22, gender equality was a policy objective in 42% of the programmes funded by DAC members’ bilateral allocable ODA, amounting to USD 60.4 billion of the USD 143 billion in bilateral allocable ODA assessed against the OECD gender marker (OECD, 2024[15]). While in 2021-22 the total volume of such ODA was higher than the 2019-20 level of USD 57 billion, its share was down from 45% in 2019-20, the first relative drop after a period of growth from 2011 to 2020 (OECD, 2024[15]). The bulk of ODA with gender equality objectives was for programmes that integrate gender equality as one policy objective among others, and only 4% of aid was dedicated to programmes with gender equality as the principal objective (OECD, 2024[15]).
ODA increasingly responds to global crises including health, climate and conflict
Following successive global shocks, it remains unclear whether the increase in ODA is truly new and additional or reflects ODA redirected from existing commitments. The OECD estimates that DAC members’ bilateral aid spending on what could be considered to be the provision of global public goods has grown from 30% of average bilateral ODA in 2006-10 to about 57% in 2016-20, due in large part to growing expenditures related to climate challenges, the costs for refugees in donor countries and infectious diseases (OECD, 2023[9]). ODA budgets are increasingly stretched as they respond to short-term demands while continuing to finance long-term development in developing countries and poverty reduction goals (OECD, 2022[16]).
Climate finance provided and mobilised by developed countries for climate action in developing countries, including and beyond ODA, nearly doubled from USD 59 billion in 2016 to USD 116 billion in 2022 in line with the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change target to mobilise USD 100 billion per year by 2020 in developing countries (OECD, 2024[17]). Climate finance provided and mobilised by developed countries just for SIDS tripled since 2016 to USD 3.2 billion in 2022 (OECD, 2024[17]). Developed countries also have made progress towards the goal of doubling the adaptation finance they provide and mobilise and are on track to achieve the target if current efforts are maintained (OECD, 2024[17]). Total bilateral climate-related development finance amounted to a two-year average of USD 50 billion in 2021-22 or 40% of total bilateral ODA (OECD, 2024[18]). In addition, bilateral providers increased their official development finance flows for biodiversity, which reached an all-time high of USD 15.4 billion in 2022 (OECD, 2024[19]).8 Finally, ODA to protect oceans is on an upward trend (OECD, 2020[20]). (More information on climate finance, including private finance mobilisation for climate action, is presented in Chapter 3 on domestic and international private business and finance.)
At COP29, nations agreed on a New Collective Quantified Goal for climate finance, committing developed countries to mobilise at least USD 300 billion annually by 2035 to support developing nations in addressing climate change (COP29, 2024[21]). The conference also called for raising USD 1.3 trillion per year from all public and private sources in total by 2035 (UN, 2024[22]).
Debt sustainability safeguards for ODA have been strengthened
Since 2015, on average 85% of total ODA is in the form of grants (OECD, 2024[1]). ODA loans must comply with the World Bank and International Monetary Fund Debt Sustainability Analysis standards to ensure that they do not contribute to debt distress. In addition, they should remain highly concessional, particularly when extended to those most in need. However, the average grant element (measure of concessionality) of DAC members’ ODA loans to LDCs declined from 78.4% in 2015 to 70.0% in 20229 due to higher interest rates, which doubled to 0.82%, and the shortened maturity of loans by 6 years (to 29.8 years in 2022) (OECD, 2024[2]).10
Multidimensional vulnerabilities, beyond GDP, are important to consider for countries approaching the graduation from development finance thresholds
It is important to develop other measures and indices of vulnerability as world poverty and inequalities shift and as climate change and debt increase risk levels. The use of GNI per capita, while imperfect, is grounded in robust evidence and is a good proxy for a country’s welfare, vulnerabilities associated with lower levels of economic development, and resilience. While GNI per capita remains the key metric for determining the ODA eligibility of a country, including low- and middle-income countries as defined by the World Bank, GNI per capita is not the only measure of how development finance is allocated. SIDS, for example, are mainly MICs, yet face an anticipated annual adaptation gap of USD 7.3 billion on average per year until 2030, demonstrating continuing financing needs. The aim of the UN Multidimensional Vulnerability Index, initiated in 2020, is to help assess and raise awareness of vulnerabilities that are not captured by GNI per capita or by GDP (UN, 2024[23]). To further support countries as their GNI per capita reaches the threshold for ODA graduation, the DAC is exploring options for more open, inclusive and transparent partnerships in support of a smooth transition to broader sources of financing beyond ODA, particularly for those countries that are approaching the threshold for ODA eligibility and face specific vulnerabilities.
Total official development finance for capacity building and technical assistance is increasing and facilitates access to innovative finance
While innovative solutions for sustainable development finance have mushroomed in recent years, their impact and deployment has been limited in developing countries due to capacity constraints. Capacity building and technical assistance in vulnerable countries seeks to leverage innovations such as sustainable finance instruments and debt management tools. In 2022, total official development finance for capacity building and national planning amounted to USD 54.9 billion, a 50% increase over 2015 (OECD, 2024[2]). Policy reforms carried out through Integrated National Financing Frameworks (INFFs) in 17 countries have leveraged USD 16 billion for SDG investments and offer the potential to align an additional USD 32 billion (Integrated National Financing Frameworks, 2024[24]). The INFF Facility, launched in 2022, provides technical assistance to and supports capacity building in countries preparing or implementing INFFs to enable them to bring innovations to scale. It also is exploring the creation of new windows (including with South-South and DAC providers) to also help respond to growing demand.
Notes: The data points are mainly drawn from the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2024 and its statistical annexes. Trend data in are in constant USD 2015 prices unless otherwise indicated.
1. Based on data provided by International Forum on TOSSD.
References
[21] COP29 (2024), Breakthrough in Baku delivers $1.3 trillion ’Baku Finance Goal’ with new core finance goal of $300 billion, https://cop29.az/en/media-hub/news/breakthrough-in-baku-delivers-13tn-baku-finance-goal.
[29] Global Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation (n.d.), The Global Partnership and SDG Target 17.15, https://www.effectivecooperation.org/system/files/2023-06/SDG%2017.15.pdf.
[33] Green climate fund (2024), Green climate fund, https://www.greenclimate.fund/gcf-2.
[24] Integrated National Financing Frameworks (2024), Making finance work for for people and planet: How countries are building their sustainable finance ecosystem through integrated national financing frameworks, https://inff.org/resource/making-finance-work-for-people-and-planet-how-countries-are-building-their-sustainable-finance-ecosystem-through-integrated-national-financing-frameworks.
[8] International Forum on Total Official Support for Sustainable Development (2024), “About the data”, Total Official Support for Sustainable Development, https://tossd.online/about (accessed on 30 November 2024).
[42] MIGA (2023), Annual Report 2023, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, https://www.miga.org/sites/default/files/multilingual/2023-10/MIGA_AnnualReport2023_interior_toprint_R10.pdf.
[27] OECD (2025), Modernising official development assistance (ODA), https://www.oecd.org/content/oecd/en/topics/sub-issues/oda-standards/modernising-official-development-assistance-oda.html (accessed on 25 January 2025).
[19] OECD (2024), Biodiversity and Development Finance 2015-2022: Contributing to Target 19 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d26526ad-en.
[17] OECD (2024), Climate Finance Provided and Mobilised by Developed Countries in 2013-2022, Climate Finance and the USD 100 Billion Goal, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/19150727-en.
[7] OECD (2024), Development co-operation for a sustainable ocean economy in 2022: A snapshot, https://one.oecd.org/document/DCD%282024%2921/en/pdf.
[10] OECD (2024), Development Co-operation Report 2024: Tackling Poverty and Inequalities through the Green Transition, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/357b63f7-en (accessed on 29 November 2024).
[15] OECD (2024), Development Finance for Gender Equality 2024, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e340afbf-en.
[47] OECD (2024), Multilateral Development Finance 2024, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/8f1e2b9b-en.
[18] OECD (2024), OECD Data Explorer, Aid activities targeting Global Environmental Objectives (dataset), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/m.
[46] OECD (2024), OECD Data Explorer, Country programmable aid (CPA), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/1p.
[2] OECD (2024), OECD Data Explorer, Creditor Reporting System (database), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/c.
[1] OECD (2024), OECD Data Explorer, DAC 1 table (database), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/1c.
[3] OECD (2024), OECD Data Explorer, DAC 2a table (database), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/w.
[5] OECD (2024), OECD Data Explorer, DAC 3a table (database), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/y.
[45] OECD (2024), OECD Data Explorer, DAC 5 table (database), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/u.
[14] OECD (2024), “Sustainability-linked bonds: How to make them work in developing countries, and how donors can help”, OECD Development Perspectives, No. 44, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7ca58c00-en.
[9] OECD (2023), Development Co-operation Report 2023: Debating the Aid System, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f6edc3c2-en (accessed on 29 November 2024).
[41] OECD (2023), Green, social and sustainability bonds in developing countries: the case for increased donor co-ordination, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2023/06/green-social-and-sustainability-bonds-in-developing-countries_2c108396/1cce4551-en.pdf.
[12] OECD (2023), “Private finance mobilised by official development finance intervention”, OECD Development Perspectives, No. 29, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c5fb4a6c-en.
[16] OECD (2022), Global Outlook on Financing for Sustainable Development 2023: No Sustainability Without Equity, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/fcbe6ce9-en.
[20] OECD (2020), Sustainable Ocean for All: Harnessing the Benefits of Sustainable Ocean Economies for Developing Countries, The Development Dimension, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/bede6513-en.
[38] OECD (n.d.), Conflict and fragility (webpage), https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/sub-issues/conflict-and-fragility.html.
[31] OECD (n.d.), Tax treatment of official development assistance, https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/policy-issues/tax-and-development/tax-treatment-of-official-development-assistance.html (accessed on 2024).
[11] OECD/UNDP (2019), Making Development Co-operation More Effective: 2019 Progress Report, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/26f2638f-en.
[4] TOSSD (2024), TOSSD data visualisation tool, International Forum on Total Official Support for Sustainable Development, https://tossd.online/ (accessed on 29 November 2024).
[22] UN (2024), COP29 UN Climate Conference Agrees to Triple Finance to Developing Countries, Protecting Lives and Livelihoods, https://unfccc.int/news/cop29-un-climate-conference-agrees-to-triple-finance-to-developing-countries-protecting-lives-and.
[30] UN (2024), Financing for Sustainable Development Report 2024: Financing for Development at a Crossroads, United Nations Department Social and Economic Affairs, Financing for Sustainable Development Office, New York, https://desapublications.un.org/publications/financing-sustainable-development-report-2024 (accessed on 20 November 2024).
[23] UN (2024), History of the MVI, United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States, https://www.un.org/ohrlls/mvi/history-of-mvi (accessed on 29 November 2024).
[25] UN (2024), Progress Towards the Sustainable Development Goals - Report of the Secretary-General: Statistical Annex, United Nations Economic and Social Council, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/report/2024/E_2024_54_Statistical_Annex_I_and_II.pdf.
[28] UN (2024), SDGs - Extended Report, United Nations Statistics Division, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/extended-report/ (accessed on 29 November 2024).
[6] UN (2024), The Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2024, United Nations Statistical Commission, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/extended-report/Extended-Report_Goal-17.pdf.
[34] UN (2024), The Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2024, United Nations Statistical Commission, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/extended-report/Extended-Report_Goal-13.pdf.
[39] UN (2024), The Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2024: Goal 10, United Nations Statistical Commission, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/extended-report/Extended-Report_Goal-10.pdf.
[35] UN (2024), The Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2024: Goal 11, United Nations Statistical Commission, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/extended-report/Extended-Report_Goal-11.pdf.
[36] UN (2024), The Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2024: Goal 11, United Nations Statistical Commission, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/extended-report/Extended-Report_Goal-11.pdf.
[26] UN (2024), The Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2024: Goal 17, United Nations Statistical Commission, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/extended-report/Extended-Report_Goal-17.pdf.
[43] UN (2024), The Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2024: Goal 3, United Nations Statistical Commission, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/extended-report/Extended-Report_Goal-3.pdf.
[44] UN (2024), The Sustainable Development Goals Extended Report 2024: Goal 4, United Nations Statistical Commission, New York, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/extended-report/Extended-Report_Goal-4.pdf.
[37] UNFCCC (2024), Draft text on SBI 60 agenda item 11: Matters relating to the least developed countries, https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/LDC_matters_SBI60.pdf.
[32] United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2023), United Nations Guidelines on the Tax Treatment of Government-to-Government Aid Projects, United Nations, https://doi.org/10.18356/9789210001083.
[13] World Bank (2024), Green, Social, Sustainability, and Sustainability-Linked (GSSS) Bonds Market Update, July 2024, https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/dacb969cc71f53abde2d2758f1cc13ed-0340012024/original/GSSS-Quarterly-Newsletter-Issue-No-8.pdf.
[40] World Bank (2024), Green, Social, Sustainability, and Sustainability-Linked (GSSS) Bonds: Market Update – April 2024, https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/2fa215f2779f95d970ef0601aa551cbc-0340012024/original/GSSS-Quarterly-Newsletter-Issue-No-7.pdf.
← 1. The headline total for ODA in 2023 is on a grant equivalent basis. The change in ODA volume since 2015 is based on net ODA figures.
← 2. The amounts include ODA from non-DAC providers that report to the OECD Creditor Reporting System (CRS) and estimates of ODA from non-DAC providers that do not report to the CRS. (OECD, 2024[38]). Non-DAC providers that report to the CRS are Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Chinese Taipei, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Republic of Türkiye, and United Arab Emirates. Estimates were made for the following non-DAC providers: Argentina, People’s Republic of China, India and South Africa.
← 3. Estimate based on total ODA provided by DAC members and average DAC ODA/GNI in 2023 (0.37%).
← 4. The grant equivalent accounting has made the measurement of ODA more objective and transparent and corrected previous flaws from use of the cash flow system. The new discount rates for official loans (between 6% and 9%) are also lower and more realistic than the discount rate (10%) applicable prior to the reform. All details of ODA data are available for public scrutiny. ODA data are still collected and published on a flow basis in addition to the grant equivalent system for the sake of transparency and comparability. See the https://web-archive.oecd.org/temp/2023-11-13/395130-modernisation-dac-statistical-system.htm.
← 5. The countries that adopted a 0.7% or higher ODA to GNI target as of 2022 include: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden.
← 6. The DAC and non-DAC countries that have achieved the 0.7% ODA/GNI target for one year or more since 2015 are Denmark, Kuwait, Germany, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, Türkiye, United Arab Emirates and the United Kingdom.
← 7. The term "mobilisation" describes the causal link between private finance made available for a specific project and an official intervention.
← 8. The total is obtained by applying a 40% coefficient on a portion of data as having a significant objective (i.e. Biodiversity-specific ODF).
← 9. The 1978 DAC Recommendation on the Terms and Conditions of Aid called on adherents to ensure an 86% grant element for all developing countries and 90% for LDCs. However, the Recommendation refers to the definition of ODA as it stood before 2014, including to a discount rate of 10% for calculating the grant element instead of discount rates differentiated by income group.
← 10. See the 2024 DAC Working Party on Development Finance Statistics, https://one.oecd.org/document/DCD/DAC/STAT(2024)21/en/pdf.