Trends Shaping Education 2025

This chapter examines how the combined influence of technological advancements, sustainability imperatives and the lingering influence of the COVID-19 pandemic are transforming the world of work and other social interactions. Technological changes are redefining the very nature of work, including the balance between work and other areas of life, with many seeking greater flexibility and sense of purpose. Labour-market changes related to the green and digital transitions, while still modest overall, are concentrated in specific regions, disrupting local labour markets, and leading to skills mismatches. While offering opportunities for sustainable sectoral and systems change, if unmanaged, these transformations can also exacerbate and add to existing inequalities along social, demographic and economic lines. Observed shifts are not linear, with progress on gender equality and sustainable behaviours showing both advances and setbacks. These developments challenge education systems to find new ways to support resilience and agility in the face of uncertainty, supporting people in their quest for self-actualisation, while ensuring that the skills they develop are relevant for the future and no one is left behind.

Global labour markets are undergoing significant transformations due to technological advancements and sustainability imperatives – the twin transitions. The spread of new technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) is set to automate many tasks and create new ones, requiring different skill sets. Similarly, while the demand for green jobs is rising, a skills mismatch could slow the green transition and disrupt local labour markets. How can education at all levels support the skills transition to ensure that no one is left behind?

The world of work is evolving. The adoption of AI and other frontier technologies is transforming labour markets. The share of AI job postings and AI talents is growing, though still modest. The AI workforce – i.e., the subset of workers with skills that are necessary for developing and maintaining AI systems, such as statistics, computer science and machine learning – has almost tripled as a share of employment in less than a decade. However, lack of AI skills is still a barrier, with great variance across countries and genders. Progress in AI-specific hiring by firms is thus slower than what might be expected.1

Nonetheless, AI is expected to have a momentous effect in other sectors, by reshaping tasks and roles. AI could boost work quality and productivity, mostly in wealthier countries and knowledge-heavy industries, bridge skill gaps and improve worker engagement and safety. But it may also jeopardise well-being, privacy and autonomy. The unprecedented speed of adoption of certain generative AI, such as ChatGPT, attracts diverging reactions: more than half of young people worry that AI will eliminate jobs, yet many others believe technology will make their jobs less boring and more aligned with their private lives.2 While there is little evidence of major employment effects so far, many workers are estimated to require training soon.3

At the same time, the quest for sustainability sees jobs in high-emission industries declining while new opportunities are created in green sectors, and skill needs are changing also in sectors that are neither green nor polluting. Green-driven occupations – i.e., jobs affected by the net-zero transition, even if indirectly – employ about a fifth of workers in the OECD, mostly in the manufacturing, utilities, mining, construction, and transport sectors. Although the share of all green-driven occupations increased by only 2% in European OECD countries and the United States, the sub-category of green “new and emerging” occupations (14% of green-driven jobs), which are typically high-skill jobs, such as managers, professionals and technicians, experienced the fastest growth in the past decade.4

As the demand for new jobs and skills rises, so do the challenges in meeting these demands. Skills development policies are not keeping pace: only around four in ten adults participate in formal or non-formal learning for job-related reasons on average across the OECD.5 Upskilling workers and helping them obtain adequate employment opportunities will be essential to ensure they are not left behind – but is the education and training sector ready?

Younger generations are adapting their consumption, work and lifestyle choices in response to both economic necessity and shifting values. Financial pressures push many to live with their parents for longer or take on a second job. At the same time, with changing priorities, young people often seek hybrid work or reduced work hours. These preferences reflect a growing focus on work-life balance, in line with broader societal trends, as well as a wish for self-actualisation. Can education foster independence and resilience?

In most OECD countries, more than half of people surveyed believe that today’s children will grow up to be worse off than their parents. This sentiment has grown stronger over the past decade and is supported by data showing declining inter-generational income mobility in some countries.6 The economic fallout from the pandemic, combined with the ongoing cost-of-living crisis, has hit young people particularly hard.7 Faced with economic pressures, over half of individuals under 40 across 44 countries worldwide reported living paycheck-to-paycheck, with little or no savings for emergencies, periods of unemployment, or housing. As a result, young people are increasingly anxious about the future: over half of those surveyed think it will become harder or impossible to start a family or buy a house.8

One coping mechanism is what is known as nesting. As young people tend to live in rental housing, with rent prices rising faster than inflation, many opt to stay in the family home. The share of young adults living with their parents has increased in over 20 OECD countries since 2006,9 reflecting a decline in financial independence. Many young people have also taken on a second job, buy second-hand clothes or choose not to drive a car.10 Some of these choices align with a growing environmental consciousness among young generations and suggest resilience and agility in the face of changing realities.

Moreover, young people increasingly prioritise work-life balance and flexibility, meaning that less stable work patterns may not deter them. For instance, across 44 countries, most young people in remote or hybrid roles would rather change jobs if asked to work on-site full-time. About half of Gen Zs (born 1995 - 2005) would rather be unemployed than stuck in a job they dislike, and over three-quarters of those under 40 seek more flexible work or reduced working hours.11 These preferences are in line with broader trends of decreasing work hours across the OECD – on average people worked 146 hours less in 2023 than in 1988, time freed up for non-work-related activities.

Similarly, long work hours are becoming less common across age groups.12 Job-to-job transitions are also on the rise among all age groups in OECD countries and are most pronounced among the young. While frequent job switching can signal job instability, it can also lead to higher wages and better skill-job matching or may be in line with greater focus on individual autonomy and self-fulfilment.13 Encouragingly, more young people were satisfied with their work-life balance in 2024 than in 2019.14 Can education contribute to equipping learners for growing uncertainty, dynamism and responsibility?

Long-standing income inequalities between countries have decreased since the 1980s as emerging economies experienced stronger growth than advanced economies, lifting many out of poverty. Yet within-country economic inequalities are on the rise globally, indicating that the benefits of economic growth have not been distributed equally. Across the OECD, real incomes of low- and middle-earners have increased at slower rates than those of top earners, reflecting growing social inequality and jeopardising social cohesion and stability. Recent increases in energy and food prices also disproportionately affect low-income households. What can education systems do to mitigate and address rising inequalities?

Income inequalities between countries, while declining, remain high globally. Within countries, the gap between the incomes of the top 10% and the bottom 50% of individuals has nearly doubled globally since the 1980s. Global wealth inequalities are even starker, with the poorest half of the population owning just 2% of total wealth, while the richest 10% hold 76% of it.15 These inequalities mean that despite strong economic growth in emerging economies, many societies remain deeply unequal. However, inequality trends vary across countries, suggesting that inequality is preventable through policy choices.

Across the OECD, low and middle incomes have risen at slower rates than higher incomes, with the lowest earners hit hardest during the global financial crisis.16 Increased labour-market polarisation has meant widening earnings inequalities, while inflation has increased costs for many families, especially in food and energy. Consequently, people increasingly feel that economic disparities are too high.17 Economic inequality can lead to societal fragmentation and increased polarisation, as disparities in wealth and opportunity create divisions within communities and erode trust in institutions. This prompts reflection on how education can best foster social cohesion and resilience, while ensuring that people from all socio-economic backgrounds can gain the skills needed to thrive in changing labour markets. With growing income and wealth gaps within societies and between generations, can education be the great equaliser?

Tackling inequality requires resources, yet the redistributive capacity of many states has gotten weaker. Higher levels of public debt in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic further limit governments’ capacity to invest in social services and public infrastructure, including education. Alongside the role of broader cross-sectoral policies in addressing inequality, education has the potential to foster solidarity and improve life chances for students from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Is it doing all it can?

Attitudes on gender-related issues evolve over time, but change is not always linear. Recently, some views on gender have shifted towards greater equality, while others have become more traditional, and younger generations present mixed outlooks. Women’s progress in the labour market also reflects uneven trends. And while acceptance of LGBTI rights is improving, major variations remain. How can education promote an environment where everyone, regardless of gender or sexual orientation, feels valued and respected?

Gender differences in education outcomes offer a complex picture. Labour-market indicators show that closing the gender wage gap for women has been slow globally and gender gaps in workforce participation have fluctuated since 2009, with OECD countries showing some improvements in the last decade.18 Across the OECD, girls are outperforming boys on many educational outcomes and significantly more young women than men have obtained advanced qualifications in recent years. Yet this educational advantage has yet to translate into closing employment gaps.19 Labour-market equality may be hard to achieve when social attitudes towards women remain unfavourable.

While some discriminatory views towards women have become less prevalent in the past decade, others have gained traction, such as the belief that it is problematic for a woman to earn more than her husband.20 Similarly, other surveys show increasing agreement with the view that a man who stays home to care for his children is ‘less of a man’, with nearly a quarter of adults in 31 countries (mostly men) holding this belief in 2024. Interestingly, such traditional views are more common among younger generations than older ones. At the same time, almost half of those under 40 define themselves as feminists (mostly women), far more than older generations do,21 suggesting a divide within younger groups along gender and ideological lines. The reasons for regressive trends in some areas are very complex and not uniform across countries.

Inclusivity of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities has also followed mixed trends. In some OECD countries, the share of adults identifying as LGBTI has been rising, a phenomenon driven by younger generations, and which might be linked to underreporting in previous decades. On average, social acceptance of homosexuality has increased across 34 countries, especially so in advanced economies, among younger generations, women, the more educated and the less religious.22 In the last two decades, all OECD countries have improved somewhat on LGBTI rights, but many still lack key legal protections. Although more countries now allow legal gender marker changes, transgender people face growing anti-trans violence, restrictive legislation and labour-market discrimination in some countries.23 What should be the role of education in promoting inclusivity and equality, both in thought and practice?

The rise of digital technologies – e.g., data, communication and AI – is reshaping both our work dynamics and personal lives. We increasingly rely on these tools for our social connections, work, self- and health care, leisure, shopping, learning, and interacting with government services. The rise of remote work is also shifting household dynamics. While many of these innovations are making things better, easier, and quicker, some carry risks or are not equally accessible to everyone. How can education prepare everyone for a safe and productive digital future, without leaving human interaction behind?

Digital technology use is now ubiquitous. In interpersonal relationships, more people are using social media, and they are using it for longer hours. In self-care and healthcare, the wellness app sector has seen steady revenue growth, more people are turning to the Internet for health information, and the teleconsultation market has experienced a significant surge in financial volume.24

As online services become more accessible, the global use of digital platforms to interact with government authorities is rising too. On average across the OECD, about 3 in 4 people use online government services (slightly less than Internet banking), though this varies widely between countries.25 In Europe, use of e-gov services has steadily grown since 2008. However, gaps persist, often linked to differences in formal education and ICT skills, and lower income tends to correlate with a lower e-gov uptake. The digital divide is no longer just about connectivity but also the degree to which one can benefit from online information and services.26 Governments must balance between investing in digital skills, through schools and lifelong learning, and providing adequate offline support. AI could potentially help, but access remains a challenge.

The way we work is also changing rapidly. While COVID-19 spurred a shift towards remote work, the trend has now decoupled from the pandemic and become a lasting one. In OECD countries, the share of advertised telework is continuing to grow, and two or three days of teleworking per week are now typical in jobs that allow for it. However, better-paid and more educated workers are more likely to enjoy remote work, meaning opportunities are not even. Telework has the advantages of reducing commuting time, increasing flexibility, and enabling non-mobile workers to participate in paid employment, but can also negatively affect work-life balance and increase isolation. And while both employees and employers seem to agree that some degree of teleworking is positive, the effect of telework on productivity remains contested.27 At the same time, the rise of telework has also led to an increase in co-working spaces, which could boost local economies, and improve the inclusivity of local labour markets. To benefit from the digitalisation of life and work, people need digital literacy and adaptability to an ever-changing environment. Can education institutions and lifelong learning schemes help everyone keep pace?

In recent years, climate change has dramatically impacted lives worldwide, calling attention to the urgent need to reduce emissions. To be effective, these efforts should be comprehensive, addressing both supply-side and demand-side factors. Behavioural change is critical in all pathways towards net-zero carbon emissions, but recent consumption trends have been mixed. For instance, meat consumption continues to rise, particularly in richer countries, and demand is increasing worldwide for high-emissions SUV cars, although electric vehicles are also becoming more common. What is the role of education in shaping consumption patterns and behaviours for a more sustainable future?

Net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in OECD countries have gradually declined since 2007, partly due to climate policies and the economic slowdown after the 2008 crisis. However, progress varies significantly across countries. While OECD nations are expected to somewhat reduce emissions by 2030, global emissions are still projected to rise.28 New technologies may offer hope for mitigating emissions, but achieving net-zero targets will require comprehensive strategies – improving energy efficiency, adopting renewable energy sources, reducing consumption, and cutting transportation and industrial emissions. These strategies require wider policy and structural changes. But shifting consumer behaviour is also key, with living car-free, reducing air travel, moving towards more plant-based diets, and using renewable electricity among the behavioural changes with the highest mitigation potential.29

Yet, global meat consumption, for example, has consistently risen, especially in wealthier countries. The largest increases have been in poultry and pork, with total meat production accounting for over half of food emissions. While the impact of meat consumption on emissions is expected to slow due to a shift toward poultry, which carries a smaller footprint, and technological advances that reduce methane emissions, meat consumption remains a significant contributor to emissions.30

Passenger car sales also show mixed trends. Overall sales have rebounded post-pandemic, reflecting insufficient development of public transportation and micro-mobility options. Electric car sales have surged, and in countries like Norway, fully electric cars now outsell others. However, this progress is stalled by a sharp global increase in SUV sales. SUVs made up 48% of global car sales in 2023, revealing consumer preferences for larger, status-driven vehicles. As most of the SUVs sold are conventional ones, emitting about 20% more CO₂ than medium-sized cars, these trends present consumers’ diverging preferences.31

At the same time, the rise of ride-sharing, ride-hailing, and vehicle-sharing platforms over the past decade suggests a shift toward more sustainable transportation, potentially reducing the number of cars per capita. Education plays a crucial role in promoting sustainability and supporting healthier, environmentally friendly lifestyles. Can it also help reshape attitudes toward consumption, materialism, and the value of sharing?

The world of work is changing with the twin transitions, remote and digital work, changing tenure dynamics and skills and gender gaps. Increased economic inequality threatens social cohesion. Will these trends evolve, transform or break? And how will they impact education in each case? This section explores imagined scenarios – alternative futures – paired with stories highlighting the opportunities and challenges faced by various education stakeholders.

The futures below are not predictions but are designed to inspire reflection and guide action in the present.