Trends Shaping Education 2025

This chapter explores issues of voice and representation in the political sphere, but also in the arts, the media and online. Democracies worldwide have seen a decline in voter turnout, particularly among younger voters, reflecting growing dissatisfaction with traditional political processes. However, the increase in protests shows that young people are not apathetic but rather seek different forms of expression. Various global movements have amplified discussions about whose voices are heard, challenging historical imbalances. At the same time, the rise of populism reflects growing values polarisation while the spread of disinformation and the decline in press freedom show the importance of media literacy and responsible digital citizenship. Digitalisation can also foster linguistic diversity, empower local cultural expressions, and support new forms of self-expression. Education can play a key role in empowering learners to raise and address issues they care about and promote active citizenship. In the virtual world, it can help foster a culture of responsible digital citizenship that balances freedom of expression with the need for accurate and respectful discourse and ensure that people can distinguish facts from fiction.

Democracies worldwide have witnessed a steady decline in voter turnout since the 1960s, with younger voters often less inclined to participate. This trend mirrors a growing dissatisfaction with the condition of democracy, particularly among younger generations. However, the decline in voter turnout has been accompanied by a wave of protests on issues such as economic justice, climate change and civil rights. The role that young people have played in leading these movements shows they are far from apathetic. How can education empower people of all ages to effectively address the issues they care about?

Voter turnout has steadily declined in across regions since the 1960s. Average global turnout fell by some 12 percentage points between the early 1960s and 2020, when it stood at around 65%. Europe and Oceania saw the sharpest declines, with average turnout falling by over 21 percentage points.1 Along with income and educational attainment, age remains one of the most robust predictors of turnout, with younger people less likely to vote. In 2020, less than half of eligible 15-29-year-olds surveyed in 37 European countries reported voting in national elections, compared to 72% of those aged 50 and above.2

The decline in voter turnout parallels rising dissatisfaction with democracy. Survey data from 77 countries suggests that the share of people who are ‘dissatisfied’ with the condition of democracy rose by almost ten percentage points between 1996 and 2020, from 48% to 58%. Younger generations show higher dissatisfaction than older ones, mirroring the generation gap in voter turnout.3

Several sources point to a recent rise in protest worldwide, adding nuance to this story.4 One dataset shows the annual number of major protests increasing from 73 in 2006 to 251 in 2020, with a range of issues featuring as the main grievances. Following the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, economic justice and anti-austerity became dominant themes, reflecting widespread concerns over inequality. From 2016, there is a notable increase in protests for Indigenous, minority, and women’s rights. Other more recent data show an increase in climate protests5. Digital communication technologies have become a key tool for organising protest and have enabled the spread of movements across borders.6

The fact that people are protesting more and voting less may suggest that mainstream politics may no longer deliver on its promise to address their concerns. In this sense, young people’s apparent disengagement may stem less from apathy and more from a lack of trust in the system or a belief that elections do not lead to meaningful change. Indeed, the share of protests led by youth and student groups increased from 9% between 2006 and 2010 to 15.5% between 2016 and 2020, indicating that younger citizens care deeply about many issues.7 People who feel they have a voice in government decisions tend to trust institutions more. Participatory and deliberative forms of democracy, which give citizens meaningful input in public decisions, could therefore help to reverse recent declines in trust.8 Formal learning on civic issues, an open classroom climate that promotes critical thinking, and opportunities to affect change in education settings and communities can also contribute to people’s sense that politics matters and that they can make a difference.9

The rise of digital technologies and globalised cultural industries raises concerns about the survival of local identities. However, there are signs that digitalisation is fostering linguistic diversity online and empowering local cultural expressions in fields like music. Movements such as #MeToo and Black Lives Matter have amplified discussions about whose voices are heard in a globalised cultural sphere, challenging historical imbalances in prestigious awards like the Nobel Prize for Literature. Education can play a key role in nurturing diverse voices, ensuring that cultural and linguistic richness can thrive.

Ensuring diverse voices are represented in the global cultural landscape remains a significant challenge. Movements like #MeToo, Black Lives Matter and the spread of decolonial perspectives have fuelled debates about whose stories are being told and heard. In literary circles, this challenge is exemplified by the lack of diversity among Nobel Prize for Literature winners. Some 71% of winners since 1900 have been from Europe, with only five from Africa and one from Oceania. Although male laureates still outnumber female laureates almost six to one, gender diversity has improved since the 1970s and 1980s, when no women won. Two of the four winners since 2020 have been female, signalling progress towards equality.10

The globalisation of arts and entertainment, alongside the rise of the Internet, has sparked fears that local cultures might diminish under the influence of cultural giants. However, there are signs that linguistic diversity online is increasing, and that digitalisation may be strengthening local cultures rather than killing them. Recent years have seen national language editions of Wikipedia replace the English, Russian, or French edition as the most read in 14 countries. In some cases, these shifts reflect the declining influence of historically dominant powers. Meanwhile, the share of editors in the ten most popular languages on Wikipedia is declining, while editors in ‘other’ languages are increasing. English remains dominant however, accounting for some 40% of all Wikipedia contributions.11

In the music industry, the global dominance of English-language artists is being challenged by those performing in local languages. In 2013, all artists in the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry’s list of the ten most commercially successful artists performed in English; by 2022, this share had halved.12 In several European countries, the share of domestic artists in the top of the end-of-year singles charts increased between 2012 and 2022, while English-speaking artists declined.13

This shift may be driven by the rise of music streaming, which gives consumers more choice and incentivises global record companies to invest in local talent14. However, the streaming landscape remains dominated by large firms from Asia, Europe, and North America, and remuneration models favour big artists, making it difficult for many to earn a sustainable income. This points to the ongoing challenge of creating streaming platforms and revenue models that support smaller and emerging artists.15

The English language continues to have an outsized influence, meaning that people will still want to learn, consume and create in it. However, consumers are clearly drawn to content in their own language and, increasingly, to more diverse global voices. Arts and language education play an important role in meeting this demand, ensuring that local cultures continue to thrive through globalisation.

Some expected that globalisation would lead to the spread of liberal and progressive values worldwide. However, there are signs of a growing divide between countries on social issues such as sexual orientation, abortion, and the importance of children’s obedience. We also see increasing values polarisation within countries, with populist, far-left, and far-right parties increasing their vote share in elections. While civic education may help to restore faith in democracy, addressing the social and economic factors driving the rise of populism will be a bigger challenge. Educators also face the task of promoting social cohesion in increasingly divided societies.

While some predicted that globalisation would see people in different countries increasingly adopt similar positions on social issues, surveys point to a widening gap between world regions regarding support for ‘emancipative values’. These values emphasise individual freedom over group conformity and include views on issues such as sexual orientation, abortion, and whether it is important for children to be obedient. While survey data from Oceania, Europe, and the Americas show growing support for emancipative values, average support has remained relatively stable in Asia and declined in Africa, meaning the ‘values gap’ between these regions has grown.16

Shifts in support for political parties point to increasing polarisation within countries. Across 31 European democracies, the combined vote share of populist, far-left, and far-right parties surged from around 12% in the early 1990s to 30% in 2022. Populist parties often see society as divided into two opposing groups – e.g., the ‘pure people’ and the ‘corrupt elite’ – and argue that politics should reflect the general will of ‘the people’. Since the 2015 refugee crisis, there has been a notable increase in votes for far-right populist parties that combine these beliefs with hostility towards migrants and minorities. Far-left populists have also increased their vote share, combining populist ideas and approaches with a critique of prevailing economic structures.17 Both forms of populism have garnered support among younger voters, particularly in countries where younger people report higher dissatisfaction with democracy.18

Education holds the promise of restoring faith in democracy by empowering people to influence decision-making within their community and beyond. However, some of the issues driving the growth of populism may be harder to solve. In many countries, inter-generational inequalities in housing, jobs, and wages have increased youth support for populists who promise to address these concerns. While the education sector has a crucial role to play, meeting these complex challenges will require action in other policy areas. In the short term, increasing polarisation means educators face the challenge of promoting social cohesion and building consensus across divides while also respecting diverse viewpoints and avoiding indoctrination.

Recent advances in digital technology have opened democratic debate to new voices. However, this does not necessarily coincide with greater freedom of expression. Press freedom has declined in some countries, with journalists and media organisations facing an increasingly hostile environment. The explosion of social media has also enabled the spread of disinformation and the rise of more polarised forms of journalism. These trends not only sow division in some societies, but also threaten the functioning of democracies. Advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) technologies may intensify these challenges but could also be part of the solution. How can education equip people with the critical skills to distinguish between facts, falsehoods, and opinions in a changing information landscape?

While the spread of digital technologies has opened democratic debate to new voices, this expansion has not necessarily led to more freedom of expression. The share of OECD countries with a ‘good’ rating or for press freedom on the World Press Freedom Index halved between 2015 and 2021. These declines are partly driven by declining public trust in the media and increasing attacks on journalists by politicians. Meanwhile, people’s engagement with social media has enabled the rise of opinion journalism and the spread of mis- and disinformation. These trends are fuelling polarisation in democratic societies.19

While misinformation refers to false or misleading content that is made or shared without bad intentions, disinformation is deliberately crafted and spread to deceive. Both have become significant threats to democratic processes.20 One study found a steady increase in disinformation targeting elections in 53 countries between 2016 and 2021. Examples included false or misleading information about voting procedures, claims of electoral fraud, and attempts to cast doubt on postal or overseas voting. In most cases, the source of disinformation was traced to an unspecified social media user, although their profiles often revealed their political views or suggested they were part of a coordinated campaign. In some 17% of cases, however, political candidates or figures were directly involved in spreading disinformation.21

Advances in AI threaten to intensify existing disinformation challenges and further empower authoritarian regimes to monitor citizens and suppress free speech. By 2023, AI had already been used in disinformation campaigns in at least 16 countries. In some countries, legal frameworks promote the use of machine learning to remove content deemed unfavourable from digital platforms.22 On the other hand, emerging evidence indicates that tailored dialogues with generative AI could help fight conspiracy theories.23

Given the overwhelming volume of information citizens encounter daily, education plays a critical role in fostering the media literacy and critical thinking skills that help them decide what is true, false or misleading. Education can also promote responsible engagement with AI and other technologies, safeguarding against their misuse in elections and political debate. This is especially important in an age where more people are creating and consuming digital content.

The ubiquity of the Internet and digital devices like smartphones and tablets has paved the way for new forms of expression. Influencers, podcasters, and self-published authors are expanding their global reach, potentially bringing more voices into global conversations. However, the persistence of digital divides within and between countries means some people are better positioned to become online content creators than others. What role can education play in fostering a more inclusive and democratic digital discourse?

The number of digitally connected people is growing rapidly, and there has been some progress on closing divides within and between countries. The number of fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants worldwide increased from 3.7 in 2005 to 17.8 in 2021. Active mobile-broadband subscriptions soared from 8.3 per 100 inhabitants to 83.5 between 2009 and 2022, reflecting the spread of smartphones and other personal devices.24

As connectivity expands, more people are becoming online content creators. On average across OECD countries with available data, the share of individuals reporting they had used the Internet to upload self-created content increased from 10.3% in 2008 to 38.3% in 2020.25 This includes podcasting, which has grown significantly since the format first appeared in 2003. The number of podcasts launched each year increased twelvefold between 2009 and 2019, with new launches and listener numbers surging in the early years of the COVID-19 pandemic.26 The number of self-published books also saw a 264% increase between 2017 and 2022, facilitated by the availability of inexpensive publishing services.27

Content creation is becoming more lucrative, with companies paying social media influencers to promote their products and services. Estimates placed the value of the global influencer marketing industry at USD 16.4 billion in 2022, an almost tenfold increase since 2016.28 The growing returns of the influencer economy may be influencing young peoples’ career choices. Data from the United States suggests some 57% of 13-to-26-year-olds would become an influencer if given the opportunity.29

However, there are concerns about influencers and other content creators spreading false and misleading content, promoting unrealistic lifestyles, impacting mental health, and exposing young people to financial, health and privacy risks. These concerns are significant given the size of their audiences and the lack of vetting from traditional gatekeepers. Disinformation concerns have grown since the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. One study traced 65% of anti-vaccine content on Facebook and Twitter to a handful of influencers, dubbed ‘the Disinformation Dozen’.30

Moreover, persistent digital divides mean that not everyone can become an online content creator. In 2022, the average number of mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 people was over three times higher in high-income countries than in low-income countries.31 Within countries, rural, remote, and disadvantaged populations often face connectivity gaps. There are also disparities in how people use digital technologies, with younger, wealthier, and more educated individuals more likely to upload self-created content. Education can help to bridge these gaps by equipping people of all ages and backgrounds with the skills to debate and create online, but also with strategies to balance their digital and real-world activities.

Smartphones and laptops are no longer the only connected devices transforming how we interact and share information. More everyday objects are now connected to the Internet and share data seamlessly; from smart TVs and voice assistants to manufacturing robots. Advances in connectivity and AI are driving this growth, promising to optimise how we live, work, and learn. However, these technologies also raise privacy concerns, particularly for children. How can parents and educators leverage their benefits while respecting and protecting children's privacy?

The Internet of Things (IoT) includes everyday objects connected to the Internet that can send and receive data without human intervention. IoT devices are increasingly common in homes, often used for entertainment (e.g., smart TVs, gaming consoles) or home automation (e.g., virtual assistants). The growth of IoT is also reflected in the surge of new firms specialising in IoT goods and services. The number of new firms created annually tripled from 2009 to 2015 but has dropped since this peak.32 At the same time, venture capital investment in the IoT continues to grow, while new connectivity standards will allow different brands and types of IoT devices to work together seamlessly.33 By 2025, over 41 billion devices are expected to capture data from individuals and households on an almost continuous basis.34

AI and technological advances are also bringing robots into more aspects of our lives. This trend is evident in the workplace, where the number of industrial robots installed yearly tripled between 2012 and 2022. More robots are now collaborative, or ‘cobots’, designed to work alongside humans.35 AI technologies like machine learning further enhance robots’ ability to work with humans. For example, curiosity algorithms allow robots to learn and develop new skills independently and have been used in humanoid entertainment robots. Developments in emotion-detecting AI could significantly expand robots’ roles in fields like health and education. Experimental robots have already been used to address mental health issues like loneliness and to improve social skills among young people with autism spectrum disorder.36 Immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR), which uses body tracking to provide interactive 3D experiences, offer similar potential. For example, VR allows people to inhabit another body and take on someone else’s perspective. VR experiences have been used to promote empathy and improve attitudes towards groups at risk of marginalisation (e.g., elderly people, or refugees).37

As connected objects become more embedded in our daily routines and environments, concerns about security and privacy, particularly for children, are growing. Unlike smartphones or computers, IoT devices are always connected, sharing data constantly. As they become more pervasive and interconnected, they may share large amounts of data about children without their or their parents' consent.38 VR magnifies and extends these risks, routinely collecting data on users’ bodies, responses, and environment.39 While these technologies can support children's health, safety, and learning, they also risk violating their privacy and autonomy. How can adults use them for children's benefit while protecting their privacy? Moreover, how should education evolve in a world where children may be interacting with voice assistants before they can read or write and will likely collaborate with robots in their future workplaces?

Democracies are grappling with declining voter turnout, rising unrest, and growing polarisation. Digital technologies have transformed communication and cultural expression but intensify concerns about false and misleading information, privacy and surveillance. How might these trends evolve or change course and what are the implications for education? This section explores potential futures for 2040, accompanied by stories that illustrate the opportunities, challenges, and tensions experienced by education stakeholders.

The futures below are not predictions but are designed to inspire reflection and guide action in the present.