Unlocking High-Quality Teaching

Social-emotional support focuses on nurturing the conditions for students to thrive in the classroom, and beyond. It seeks to meet the social-emotional needs of students which are essential for effective learning, whilst simultaneously facilitating students’ development of a holistic set of skills often referred to as ‘social-emotional skills’.

Classrooms are fundamentally spaces of human interaction and connection. Humans learn through social interaction, with social competencies arising in early infancy and forming the foundation for brain structure and pathways that enable students to develop socially and cognitively (Kuhl, 2011[1]; Wass, S. et al., 2018[2]). At the same time, learning can be a challenging process and one where students can feel exposed and vulnerable, particularly in a social, interactive space such as a classroom (OECD, 2020[3]).

Classrooms that are socially and emotionally supportive have been associated with higher assessment outcomes (Allen, J. et al., 2013[4]). For instance, examining a short-term longitudinal sample of more than 1000 participants, Wang and Holcombe (2010[5]) found that features pertaining to students’ perceived level of care and support from teachers were positively associated with students’ academic grade point averages. Similar findings have been consistently documented in evidence reviews from both research in education (Wang and Degol, 2015[6]) and human development (Cantor et al., 2019[7]). Furthermore, a positive classroom climate have also been associated with higher motivation to achieve (Patrick, Ryan and Kaplan, 2007[8]), and more motivation to engage in school (Wentzel, K. et al., 2010[9]; Wentzel, 2012[10]).

The nurturing of students’ social-emotional skills can support learning and have wide-ranging impacts. There has been considerable growth in research and empirical studies around the role that skills such as students’ capacity to self-regulate plays in their learning skills (Immordino-Yang, Darling-Hammond and Krone, 2019[11]; Education Endowment Foundation, 2021b[12]). In addition, social-emotional skills have been found to contribute to school adjustment, socialisation with peers and teachers, and engagement with educational materials (Domitrovich et al., 2017[13]; Nakamichi, Nakamichi and Nakazawa, 2019[14]), as well as impacting students’ engagement with problem behaviours such as bullying or inter-personal violence (Durlak et al., 2011[15]).

Evidence has increased with regard to understanding the malleability of social-emotional skills and how they can be explicitly taught. Skills can be malleable, to varying extents, across life (Cantor et al., 2019[7]; Kankaraš and Suarez-Alvarez, 2019[16]), though early childhood is typically viewed as one of exceptional neuroplasticity and skill malleability (Cefai, Bartolo and Cavioni, 2018[17]). That is not to say that the process of skill development ‘finishes’; rather, a developmental approach of increasing sophistication is often advocated (Steponavičius, Gress-Wright and Linzarini, 2023[18]; Denham, 2018[19]). Middle and late childhood are also periods of change, while, due to recent research, adolescence is now viewed as a highly sensitive development period too (Yeager, 2017[20]; Immordino-Yang, Darling-Hammond and Krone, 2019[11]). There has, in particular, been increased attention on the distinction between what is malleable and what is teachable (Jones et al., 2019[21]). A recent evidence review by the OECD (Steponavičius, Gress-Wright and Linzarini, 2023[18]), including multiple meta-analyses of social-emotional learning interventions around the world, suggested that social-emotional skills can be taught in school settings across age groups and national contexts. The review found that there was variation in impact, however, depending on the implementation and context. Furthermore, not all social-emotional skills can be considered equally teachable. Of the 23 skills examined in the review, evidence on their teachability was robust for 12 of the 23 skills but moderate, limited or unclear for 11 of them. Empathy, metacognition, co-operation, self-control, assertiveness, stress resistance, emotional control, social problem-solving and self-efficacy appeared as the most teachable skills.

Learning is a challenging and unpredictable process for students. Students’ relationships and emotional states can also vary, informed by what happens in the classroom and wider school, as well as at home. To foster social-emotional support, teachers can make use of the following core practices:

• nurturing a supportive classroom climate

• relationship building (teacher-student)

• relationship building (student-student)

• explicitly teaching and actively practising social-emotional skills.

All of these practices are important and inter-connected, and teachers might draw upon them simultaneously (Figure 4.1). Teachers take intentional actions to constantly nurture a classroom climate conducive to learning. This climate is supported by the relationships in the room; not only do teachers build individual relationships with each student, but they also facilitate positive relationships among students. Additionally, teachers may attend to the specific social-emotional skill growth of students; teachers create the opportunities to explicitly teach and actively practise particular social-emotional skills to enhance students’ social-emotional development.

Each of these practices are outlined one-by-one below. Each section presents a definition for the practice and other associated terms on how it might also be referred to; key research findings on its impact on student outcomes; main implementation challenges identified by researchers and schools in designing the structure of the activity, task or content, role of students and role of teachers. Then, it looks into the complexity for teachers in monitoring them in the classroom. The final section builds on schools’ insights to provide an indication about the complexities of implementation and provides reflection questions for instructional and school leaders.

The classroom environment creates a sense of physical and psychological safety for students. This environment is one of mutual respect and warmth towards each other, where students feel secure and confident to take risks in their learning and to share their thoughts and struggles.

Students are supported to persist through challenges and to embrace a mindset orientated towards growth and learning.

Associated Terms: Learning environment; Warmth; Nurturing; Positivity; Respect; Social climate; Safety and security; Mindsets; Expectations

Numerous studies highlight the significant impact of classroom climate on various academic and social domains. For instance, a recent meta-analysis of studies found that positive classroom climates had significant impacts on student achievement and social outcomes (Wang, M. et al., 2020[24]). In a large-scale study with 820 first grade classrooms (e.g. 6- to 7-year-olds) in the United States, researchers found that students in classrooms with high-quality climates – those with emotionally supportive teachers who provided thoughtful, warm feedback – displayed greater social competence compared to students in classrooms marked by low emotional support and low-quality instructional feedback (Wilson, Pianta and Stuhlman, 2007[25]).

Research has sought to understand the factors that shape the classroom climate. Researchers have identified both pedagogical practices (e.g. how teachers manage instructional time and activities) and structural components (e.g. classroom management) that contribute to a positive classroom climate (Khalfaoui, García-Carrión and Villardón-Gallego, 2021[26]). Within this context, research has particularly focused on the interactions and communications of the teacher, and their potential to craft a warm and encouraging environment. This has included research into how these types of messages from teachers may advance equity, such as encouraging engagement from underrepresented groups in various fields, like science, technology, engineering and mathematics (Master, 2021[27]) or how teachers have the potential to support mindset shifts for the most vulnerable students (Yeager, D. et al., 2022[28]).

Less attention has been placed on out-of-classroom contexts, such as playgrounds or corridors (Jones and Bouffard, 2012[23]). These are spaces where interactions and relations are often less regulated and ‘seen’ by teachers. They are spaces where students may feel particularly vulnerable and that play a particularly large role in shaping the wider learning environment and experience in classrooms (Jones, S. et al., 2021[29]).

The climate should be one where students feel safe and that they belong (Allen and Bowles, 2012[30]; Allen, Vella-Brodrick and Waters, 2016[31]). This includes both feeling physically safe with their basic needs being met, and feeling emotionally or intellectually safe to learn, try the work, and make mistakes. Students should also feel that they are a valued member of the classroom, whatever their identity or background, where high levels of mutual respect are shown to all, always.

Insights from schools:

Establish and periodically revisit expectations so they are embedded, such as using them as a tool for self-evaluation or for student reflection when managing low standards of behaviour.

Reiterate that mistakes are welcome, such as by highlighting moments where mistakes have been helpful for learning or modelling examples, whilst also addressing behaviour that mocks mistakes.

Tackle inappropriate, disrespectful comments head on – if they come up, even said casually or ‘jokingly’ by students, take the time in a lesson to draw attention to them and deal with them, using it as a learning opportunity to highlight why it is inappropriate.

Undertake a whole-class challenge where students have a responsibility to collectively improve something in the school, community, or just their classroom, where the effects can be tangibly felt (e.g. reducing class waste, improving the displays, volunteering).

Providing students with agency and choice can take a range of different forms. Research suggests that autonomy supportive practices can promote student engagement and persistence (Ma, 2021[32]; Michou, A. et al., 2023[33]; Parker, J. et al., 2021[34]). Teachers may seek to elevate the voice of students in shaping the type of learning environment they are part of, as well as students’ role in sustaining this (Reeve, 2016[35]).

Insights from schools:

Co-develop with students a real, concrete outline of the class’s expectations at the beginning of the year – for instance, how do they feel the classroom community should interact? What are the behaviours they do and do not expect to see in their classroom?

Provide opportunities to hear student voices around how they feel in the classroom, such as a task that can help reveal their well-being.

Give students responsibility for monitoring the space and resources, particularly those who are exhibiting more challenging behaviours. Clearing up, distributing, setting up, organising transitions, such routines can all be a vehicle for students play an active role in fostering the productive classroom climate.

Give students occasions to make decisions on how potentially stressful situations unfold, such as around choosing an oral or written presentation.

Research indicates that praise is one significant way teachers communicate their views of intelligence and ability to students. Research has found out that teachers with high expectations of their students, within contexts of supportive, growth-oriented messaging and practices about the malleability of students’ potential, facilitate student motivation and engagement (Reyes, M. et al., 2012[36]). In contrast, when students are praised in ways that emphasise innate abilities, such as being ‘smart’, they seek out fewer challenges, persist less on difficult tasks, have a more pronounced fear of failure, and less academic motivation (Cimpian,  A. et al., 2007[37]; Dweck, 2007[38]; Dweck, 2016[39]).

It is important to note that praise need not be confined to academic matters but can also be a way of reinforcing expected behaviours; praise may also be used to reinforce positive behaviours and to draw attention to actions that are important in the classroom (e.g. kindness, help). Again, it still requires careful, thoughtful use even with a wider focus on behaviours.

Insights from schools:

Be sincere and balanced, avoiding the extremes of either never or always providing praise, or giving vague or over-the-top praise. Rather, navigate the middle ground of providing authentic praise at appropriate, deserved times that celebrates effort and encourages more of it.

Focus praise on specific examples from student work and the particular learning goals, such as the quality use of particular processes or approaches that students are working on, as this is where students develop the skills that transfer across content – the deep problem-solving and out-of-the-box thinking, as well as the wider skills of dedication and persistence.

Relationships between teachers and students can be positive, supportive, and even warm. The teacher creates opportunities to listen to students and hear their thinking, and is approachable to students.

When the teacher interacts with students, these interactions can be caring, attentive and responsive, enriched with question-asking and individualised attention. The teacher is consistent in their interactions with all students.

Associated Terms: Interactions; Positivity; Respect; Warmth; High expectations; Consistency; Authenticity

Decades of research shows that students who develop positive, high-quality relationships with their teachers experience greater academic and social success throughout their lives (Alzahrani, Alharbi and Alodwani, 2019[40]; Guay, 2022[41]; Spilt, Koomen and Thijs, 2011[42]; Wentzel, 2022[43]). High-quality teacher-student relationships are salient predictors of learning, academic success, and social-emotional adjustment to the classroom environment (Ansari, Hofkens and Pianta, 2020[44]; Hughes, J. et al., 2008[45]). This is relevant across student ages. For instance, a longitudinal study of 2 079 high school students found that positive teacher-student relationships were significantly associated with increased student engagement in school (Martin and Collie, 2019[46]). In contrast, a landmark study by Hamre and Pianta (2001[47]) evaluated teacher-student relationship quality for a large sample of students from kindergarten through eighth grade, and found that negative relationships in kindergarten predicted poor academic and behavioural outcomes by eighth grade.

High-quality teacher-student relationships are seemingly of particular importance for certain students. They may be especially beneficial for children at higher risk of developing maladaptive behaviours - high-quality relationships with teachers are positive agents of change (Baker, Grant and Morlock, 2008[48]; Hamre and Pianta, 2005[49]; Liew, Chen and Hughes, 2010[50]; McGrath and Van Bergen, 2015[51]). There is also some important subject-specific evidence; teenagers interest and confidence in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics), for example, tends to falter in adolescence and quality relationships can be significant for addressing this (Fredricks and Eccles, 2002[52]; Simpkins et al., 2019[53]).

Research suggests that teachers who make time for individual students cultivate stronger inter-personal connections with them (Dong, Liu and  Zheng, 2021[54]) and strengthen classroom community (Rogoff, B, Turkanis and Bartlett, 2001[55]). Being well-informed about students is also essential for understanding potential negative behaviour of students that can naturally arise in school settings, and for working productively to address this (Sammons et al., 2016[56]). Moreover, there are promising findings that simple interventions like making time to greet students may be proactive measures for promoting a positive learning environment too (Cook et al., 2018[57]).

Making time for individual students is also a key aspect of making classrooms equitable, by providing teachers with the means to better respond to diverse student needs (Ferguson-Patrick, 2020[58]; Immordino-Yang, Darling-Hammond and Krone, 2019[11]; Cantor et al., 2019[7]). Students should feel comfortable to share who they are and create meaningful connections with their teacher, with these types of cumulative, reciprocal interactions playing a role in students’ feelings of belonging at school (Allen, Vella-Brodrick and Waters, 2016[31]; Allen et al., 2021[59]).

Insights from schools:

Consider using more open-ended activities at the start of the lesson, such as a group problem-solving challenge or a thought-provoking question, which allow the teacher to circulate and speak more with students.

Ask open-ended questions in lessons that encourage opinions and reflections, which may invite students to elaborate on topics and connect them to their perspectives, interests and personality.

Give students agency to develop a piece of work where they share who they are, such as a homework project at the start of a year presenting their passion, family history, or heroes.

Create opportunities for occasional, quality one-on-one talks with students about their passions and goals and how they connect to learning. These could be organised in a lesson when other students are immersed in activity, or outside of lessons.

Students can have a heightened awareness of fairness, with adolescence in particular characterised by a heightened sense of self-consciousness as well as sensitivity to their relationship with peers (Blakemore and Mills, 2014[60]; Yeager, Dahl and Dweck, 2018[61]). Treating students differently or inconsistently may communicate mixed messages to students, suggesting that the teacher has lower expectations of them or that they are less valued than others. This could have ramifications for students’ confidence and their identity, or contribute to poor behaviour (Mameli et al., 2018[62]; Donat et al., 2015[63]). Indeed, consistency in terms of expectations and boundaries is repeatedly identified as a key feature of promoting positive behaviour (Sammons et al., 2016[64]; Coe et al., 2014[65]).

Insights from schools:

Being ‘firm but friendly’ is the goal whenever a student has over-stepped the line of what is expected in terms of behaviour, it means all interactions remain respectful and no student feels they are being labelled negatively.

Explain why you have taken decisions, not to negotiate a decision but so that students can understand the rationale behind it. For instance, if there is a need to sanction negative behaviour, it should be clear why that is the case.

Self-monitor interactions by keeping track of who you haven’t managed to properly engage with.

Instances of poor behaviour that place relationships under strain are an inevitable reality of teaching. The need to address challenging behaviour or disruption can vary considerably across contexts (OECD, 2019[66]), but is a consistent and important feature of teaching and the tools teachers need at their disposal (van Tartwijk and Hammerness, 2011[67]; Muijs and Reynolds, 2000[68]). This is unsurprising considering the aforementioned complexity of student development as well as the challenges that students’ wider lives and experience may bring (Cantor et al., 2019[7]). Teachers, accordingly, need to be able to potentially repair and restore relationships to allow them to return to being positive influences on students and their learning (Cook et al., 2018[57]; Kincade, Cook and Goerdt, 2020[69]).

Insights from schools:

Ensure that the student has some time or space to ‘cool off’ if there has been a moment of conflict in the relationship, so emotions can be regulated and brought under control.

Reiterate the fundamental care and high expectations you have for a student, so they know that their relationship with you is important.

Discuss constructively what can be done differently in the future, to avoid a repeat of previous misbehaviour or misunderstandings, and set a clear expectation or goal what both you and the student are going to do.

Be honest and open around your own role in a negative interaction if something should have been handled differently. By taking responsibility for certain aspects, you can invite the same from a student.

Student-to-student relationships can be characterised by a culture of mutual respect and open-mindedness. Students have opportunities in the classroom to connect with one another, to communicate, collaborate and interact with their different peers.

Teachers are mindful of the social dynamics in the classroom and support healthy relationships between all students.

Associated Terms: Respectful relationships; Pro-social behaviour; Kindness; Trust; Community; Co-operation; Code of conduct; Restorative justice

Research has found that peer relationships among students impact students’ academic success and the attitudes that they develop about school (Ladd, Ettekal and Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2017[70]; Glew et al., 2005[71]; Young-Jones et al., 2014[72]). Classrooms characterised by rich positive ties between students, as well as more egalitarian relationships than social hierarchy, can have better behavioural and academic outcomes (Gest and Rodkin, 2011[73]). For instance, a large-scale, longitudinal study by Tufts University found that positive peer relationships in grades 6 to 8 significantly boosted academic and emotional engagement, while negative behaviours like bullying were linked to decreased school engagement (Li, Y. et al., 2011[74]). There may also be wider benefits in terms of the skills students learn; Kilday and Ryan (2022[75]) emphasise that peer relationships provide social support and opportunities to learn features of socialising.

Recently the key, if often subtle, role of the teacher in shaping student relationships has become clearer. Research has demonstrated that teachers can play an important, “invisible” role (Farmer, McAuliffe Lines and Hamm, 2011[76]) in facilitating healthy peer interactions in the classroom. Teachers who make an effort to help manage peer relationships can have a positive impact on how peers interact with each other (Kilday et al., 2022[77]; Gest et al., 2014[78]). There is also evidence on the role that whole-school approaches play, which may be particularly effective rather than single, isolated classroom approaches (Clarke, A. et al., 2015[79]; Cefai, Bartolo and Cavioni, 2018[17]).

Group activities, which give students more space for building and managing relationships, as well as activities in which student roles are more fluid as both learners and teachers for one another provide opportunities to create an environment with more positive peer interactions (Qiu and Moll, 2022[80]) and more open attitudes and beliefs amongst students (McDuffie, Mastropieri and Scruggs, 2009[81]; Solone, C. et al., 2020[82]).

Insights from schools:

Invest a good amount of time at the start of the year in opportunities for students to interact with each other, such as with time to learn about each other and team-building exercises, which can pay dividends in the long-run.

Create opportunities for collective achievement and celebration, as this may create a greater, more sustained sense to student collaboration.

Draw attention to relevant connections between students, like mutual interests or similarities that students may not be aware of.

Be conscious of dynamics and tensions between students and ensure that seating plans are practical; if two students really struggle to work together then it may be counter-productive to force them to work together all of the time.

Teachers may support students to manage peer relationships in a way that supports students’ own self-efficacy (Ryan, Kuusinen and Bedoya-Skoog, 2015[83]). This can give students the responsibility and agency in promoting healthy relationships, which is significant for both their own acquisition of skills but also for the sustainability of the peer interactions in the classroom. Of particular relevance here is students’ management of the inevitable strains in relationships. Teachers may facilitate the acknowledgement of conflicts and aiding students in conflict resolution (Kilday et al., 2022[77]).

Insights from schools:

Acknowledge and troubleshoot conflictual situations as a class, for instance by discussing how a situation can be addressed so that students learn to engage and reflect on each other viewpoints and what are healthy ways of communicating them.

Ask students to notice group dynamics that can naturally arise (e.g. interrupting or dominating, anchoring ideas, coasting) and reflect upon how to address these – such as creating space for more timid, quieter peers to engage, or motivating disengaged peers.

The language and behaviour that teachers model in the classroom is important for conveying how the teacher expects interactions in the classroom to be respectful and positive (Farmer, McAuliffe Lines and Hamm, 2011[76]). For instance, research finds that teacher acceptance and respect of students impacted how students interacted with each other (Chang et al., 2007[84]). Similarly, research shows that teachers who encourage pro-social actions, like sharing or offering help, in socially interactive environments have students who engage in more pro-social behaviours (Spivak and Farran, 2012[85]).

Insights from schools:

Set clear expectations about the tone for interactions to ensure that these are in a calm, polite, respectful way to reinforce how and why students should be respectful.

Model active listening strategies, drawing attention to students to what you are doing to really engage with what someone else is saying and to understand their point of view.

Social-emotional skills are explicitly taught to students in a focused and sequenced way to build their understanding of these skills. This includes teaching students about how they can self-regulate these skills. Students have active opportunities to use this knowledge and practise these skills in a way that is integrated with their broader learning.

Skills are sensitive to students' age and development. Skills may encompass particular attitudes, behaviours or competencies.

Associated Terms: Social-emotional learning; Communicating emotions; Emotional intelligence; Self-regulation; Lifelong learning

Social-emotional skills are be malleable and not simply innate and fixed (Steponavičius, Gress-Wright and Linzarini, 2023[18]). They can be systematically targeted through programmes (Clarke, A. et al., 2015[79]) and adjustments to classroom teaching (Durlak et al., 2011[15]). Numerous reviews of impactful programmes and interventions on social-emotional learning have consistently identified the explicit teaching and practising of social-emotional skills as a common feature of effective programmes (Jones, S. et al., 2021[29]; Clarke, A. et al., 2015[79]; Durlak et al., 2011[15]). These can help to make social-emotional skills development a clearer, more purposeful and integrated feature of classrooms (Jones and Bouffard, 2012[23]).

There is also an important equity consideration. Whilst the evidence is still developing as not all studies consider different sub-groups (Clarke, A. et al., 2015[79]), particular benefits of explicitly teaching and practising social-emotional skills have been reported for some students (Jones and Bouffard, 2012[23]). Research in the United States has found that it is particularly important for children from low-resourced communities, who often enter formal schooling with lower skills in executive functioning (Blair and Raver, 2012[86]) compared to their highly resourced peers, to have opportunities in school to develop social-emotional skills. It has been well argued that adversity and poverty may considerably hinder brain development (Cantor et al., 2019[7]), and that these can partly explain later differences in achievement gaps (Distefano et al., 2021[87]; Zelazo and Carlson, 2020[88]).

Of particular interest in recent years has been explicit attention to growth mindsets in classrooms and schools. Recent meta-analytic research suggests growth mindset interventions over the past decade still need further rigorous evaluation and implementation (Macnamara and Burgoyne, 2022[89]). In particular, there is a need to understand their differential impacts across age groups (Park et al., 2020[90]) and individual differences (e.g. What works best for who? What works best at what age?) (Leonard and Woodland, 2022[91]), and diverse populations (Burnette et al., 2023[92]).

More broadly, for those aged 10-14 the results of social-emotional programmes are mixed, but for older students there is particularly limited evidence on the effectiveness of teaching of social-emotional skills (Yeager, 2017[20]; Rosen et al., 2022[93]).

Jones and colleagues (2021[29]), who examined a range of studies that were evidenced through either randomised control trials or multiple studies, found that direct and explicit instruction was a common feature of effective programmes and interventions focused on teaching social-emotional skills. This manifested in a range of ways, such as referencing particular skills, introducing or explaining skills, or considering how to apply particular skills.

Insights from schools:

Build a clear, shared language for talking about social-emotional skills, including definitions and examples of what they may look like when they manifest in classrooms. For example, what does ‘open-mindedness’ or ‘emotional regulation’ really mean for a student and look like?

Bring in the ‘why’ behind the teaching of a skill, such as what it is trying to address if a student has been struggling (e.g. stress resistance for anxiety) or the bigger picture goal in terms of why it matters for the future (e.g. co-operation).

Highlight and celebrate examples of the skills in action in the classroom, so that students can see what these skills look like in real-life.

As well as explicitly explaining particular skills or modelling them, teachers should also consider how they provide opportunities for students to actively try out different skills and practise using particular strategies that they learn about. These opportunities can be particularly impactful when they occur in a sustained, regular way, integrated alongside the content they are learning (Diamond and  Lee, 2011[94]; Sanchez et al., 2018[95]). Reviews of interventions such as positive behavioural interventions and supports have suggested that a lack of intensity in certain targeted interventions and a lack of embedding in daily, everyday interactions may hinder their effectiveness (Jones and Bouffard, 2012[23]). The regularity of different practice opportunities may be particularly relevant when there is ongoing debate about how ‘domain specific’ certain skills are and how easily they can be transferred to different subjects or tasks (Lamb, Maire and Doecke, n.d.[96]).

Insights from schools:

Tie the use of certain skills and strategies to the subject matter to give it context and meaning, highlighting to students the skills that they have had to use in a particular task – for example, how empathy may be used in literacy when reading a text, or in geography when conducting field work.

Build a consistent routine that encourages students to self-monitor their development of social-emotional skills, where they reflect not only on the content, but also how they’ve improved particular skills in that learning context.

Teachers can help to make skills, and associated behaviours or strategies, more explicit and clear to students by directly modelling these. Researchers have argued that it is important for teachers to model the same skills that they are encouraging students to learn about and use (Jones, S. et al., 2021[29]; Sutherland et al., 2019[97]). This echoes research in relation to the modelling and demonstration of growth behaviours by teachers and how these can help these ideas to take root and develop in students too (Yeager, D. et al., 2022[28]).

Insights from schools:

Highlight when you as the teacher use the same skills, such as handling the frustration of a problem-solving process or when we feel anxious and stressed, and the strategies that can be deployed in these situations.

Participate in the skill-learning too and provide your own reflections, like students do, on the use of certain skills in the lesson. For instance, on what could have gone better when say collaborating with students or trying to manage a certain task.

The core practices of social-emotional support demand an ongoing investment of time, to both establish and sustain the levels of support students experience. It means that teachers are frequently looking for signals from students to gauge whether their implementation of teaching practices is effective or not. Teachers use their professional judgement in the classroom to perceive and process these signals. Table 4.1 includes some of the key signals that teachers can gather to check whether they have achieved the goal that they had intended when adopting that practice. The signals can be thought of as the short-term, in-class manifestation of the long-term knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that teachers seek to encourage.

• Knowledge: students understand the value of classroom norms, expected roles, and are able to label their emotions.

• Skills: students independently engage in positive interactions and successful peer collaboration. They also exert agency in managing their needs and their learning, including by being able to set their own goals or asking for support.

• Attitudes and Values: students are able to publicly share their understanding and facets of their authentic selves, and show empathy and care when others do so, or when they demonstrate particular needs. They show openness to further developing their skills.

Providing social-emotional support is shaped by the actions of the teacher in the classroom, but also shaped by the wider actions at the school- and system-levels. A deeper exploration of its complexity of can shed light on how school leaders can create more socio-emotionally supportive environments.

School ethos, shaped by leadership, crucially impacts the nurturing climate, which in turn affects classroom dynamics. Factors outside the teacher's control, such as students' backgrounds and the general school climate, tend to play a significant role in shaping socio-emotional well-being. It is worthwhile to note that schools in disadvantaged areas are more likely to face a compounded array of challenges that significantly amplify the complexities of educational and social-emotional support.

Opportunities in and outside the classroom can help teachers understand their students holistically, which is vital for being sensitive to the unique background that each of them brings. The time and space afforded by the wider school environment for understanding learners, especially when first forming relationships and the collaboration among teachers in sharing student insights, can be significant to this end.

Leadership decisions on class composition and teacher assignments can either support or complicate the development of positive relationships. The size and diversity of the class, continuity of teacher-student relationships, and the socio-emotional skills of some particular students are all factors to consider. For instance, if certain students have historically struggled to work together in certain classes, this type of composition may demand considerable time and attention from teachers when it comes to relationship-building at the expense of other practices.

Schools also play an important role in creating the time and space for planning and professional collaboration. This seems particularly significant when it comes to explicitly teaching and practising of social-emotional skills. Shared planning time may allow teachers to develop a shared language for how they speak about these skills, as well as facilitating coordination of how the teaching and practising of skills occurs in a coherent way across different subjects and ages. Also, since explicitly teaching and actively practising social-emotional skills may not come naturally to all teachers and is a field of growing research, professional dialogue can be especially beneficial.

In navigating the challenge of enabling high-quality social-emotional support in classrooms, school and system leaders may carefully consider some of the following questions:

• How do the values and ethics of the school manifest in the different, daily relations between students and teachers across the school, as well as with actors more widely? What is the culture that permeates the interactions and relationships of the school body?

• How does social-emotional support intersect with the size of classes and the diversity of groups? If school is helping students learn to live in society, is the school diverse enough to offer such opportunities? What forms of exposure or dialogue in the school help students understand the diverse range of groups and perspectives they will encounter?

• What activities at the start of the year can help to lay the foundational knowledge of social-emotional skills for then integrating skills and strategies in regular lessons?

• How to ensure that all teachers – regardless of their subject areas – dedicate time and space to students learning about and using social-emotional skills?

• How to ensure that teachers are aware of their own bias? What diversity is needed in the school to be representative of students and provide specific support or role models?

• What are the measures that can help gauge how the socio-emotional environment in the school is functioning? What indicators are more useful to ensure that early notice of students who might be struggling or isolated? How to coordinate among teachers on how to support individual students and smooth transitions?

• How can the most in-need students, and those displaying the most challenging behaviour, be best supported? What is the role of other services, the community and neighbouring schools to support in it?

• How to both set limits to over-engaged parents and cater to the hardest to reach?

[4] Allen, J. et al. (2013), “Observations of Effective Teacher-Student Interactions in Secondary School Classrooms: Predicting Student Achievement With the Classroom Assessment Scoring System-Secondary”, School psychology review.

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