Policies for the Future of Farming and Food in Peru

Peru is one of the most mega-biodiverse countries in the world with three key natural regions: the Costa, consisting of valleys, deserts and pampas; the Sierra, which makes up the mountainous region in the centre and highlands of the Andes; and the Selva, which includes the rainforest in the mountainous regions and the Peruvian Amazon plain. Overall, Peru’s natural environment is characterised by the Amazon basin, encompassing over half of the country’s landscape. It also benefits from a vast, albeit unevenly distributed, supply of freshwater resources.

Excluding deforestation-related issues, Peru’s agricultural sector has a relatively low environmental footprint, compared to other OECD countries. Agricultural emissions account for only a small share of the country’s total emissions, and since 2000, emission intensity has improved significantly, with emissions rising by less than 20% while the value of agricultural production more than doubled. Similarly, nutrient inputs and surpluses, both phosphorus and nitrogen, remain below the levels observed in regional peers and OECD countries.

Pressures from agricultural production pose challenges related to deforestation, ecosystem degradation, soil erosion and desertification, high water stress, and agrochemical contamination. The sector is also a significant contributor to GHG emissions. These trends are increasingly taken into consideration in agricultural sector regulations. At the same time, agriculture is vulnerable to the impacts of the environmental stresses to which it contributes; notably, the increase in extreme weather events occurrences and intensity, soil desertification, and water stress. More specifically:

• Peru’s unique geographical location exposes it to hydrological and meteorological events, heightened by El Niño. Flood and drought events affect agriculture and reduce crop yields.

• Desertification threatens some soils across Peru’s natural regions, reducing the availability of fertile soils for agriculture, decreasing resilience to climate change, and increasing the risks of fire and dust storms.

• Water stress levels vary across the country, particularly in the Costa region, significantly affecting the agricultural sector. Climate change is accelerating the retreat of Peru’s glaciers, which threatens long-term water availability.

Agri-environmental indicators present a mixed picture, with some areas outperforming the OECD average and others showing room for improvement. Over the past decade, cropland area has consistently expanded at an average annual growth rate of 2.4%, surpassing selected Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries (Figure ‎3.1). This expansion has been driven by both the conversion of pastureland and the conversion of forestry land into cropland. Annual production has increased by around 3.6%, the highest growth among all observed LAC countries and well above the OECD average. At the same time, the use of natural resources, namely water, and other production inputs, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, remains lower than in the OECD. Although pesticide sales have risen, pesticide use continues to be below OECD averages. It is important to note that Peru has seen an increase in organic production,1 which will be discussed later in the chapter.

In Peru, national, regional and local levels of government all play a role in the environmental sustainability of agriculture2 The national government formulates and implements policies, regulations and national strategies for sustainable agriculture through ministries and sector agencies. Regional governments tailor national policies to fit their region’s unique environmental, agricultural and product-specific conditions at the subnational level. They oversee the management of regional natural resources, including water and land, and enforce measures to protect them. Additionally, regional authorities often provide farmers with technical support and extension services, complementing those offered by the national government. Similarly, local governments play an important role in actualising and reinforcing the implementation of policies set at the national and regional levels within local communities. They maintain direct contact with farmers and agricultural communities, frequently launching initiatives and awareness campaigns at the community level to encourage sustainable agriculture practices.

At the national level, MIDAGRI is the primary government body responsible for formulating and evaluating national policies related to agriculture, including irrigation. Agriculture services such as sanitation, research and technology transfer, water resource management, organic production and agricultural infrastructure are also part of the ministry’s agenda (MIDAGRI, 2021[5]).Several key agencies of MIDAGRI are responsible for specialised policy areas.

• The National Water Authority of Peru (ANA) is accountable for actions related to the multisectoral and sustainable use of water resources by river basins. It is the Governing Body of the National System of Water Resources Management.

• The National Agrarian Health Service (SENASA) is responsible for developing and implementing the country’s sanitary and phytosanitary regulations. This includes the regulation, authorisation and control of the registration and marketing of pesticides for agricultural use. SENASA is also responsible for overseeing organic production and proposes standards and sanctions to uphold the quality of Peruvian organic products for domestic and international markets.

• The National Institute of Agricultural Innovation (INIA) is responsible for designing and implementing the national agricultural innovation strategy, essential for developing sustainable farming methods and technologies.

• The National Forest Service and Wildlife (SERFOR) is responsible for planning, supervising, executing, supporting, and controlling the national forest and wildlife policy, as well as for promoting sustainable agroforestry practices.

The Ministry of Environment (MINAM), established in 2008, is responsible for national environmental policy, including the integration of environmental sustainability into agricultural practices (MIDAGRI, 2021[5]). Specific agencies affiliated with MINAM are responsible for specialised policy areas. The National Service of Natural Protected Areas by the State (SERNANP) is accountable for implementing the technical and administrative criteria for the conservation of the protected natural areas (PNAs) and for maintaining biological diversity in these areas. Finally, the Environmental Assessment and Enforcement Agency (OEFA) enforces environmental regulation and monitoring.

Although affiliated with the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Peru’s Forest and Wildlife Oversight Agency (OSINFOR) plays an important role in monitoring and enforcing the responsible use of forestry and wildlife resources, as well as enforcing legal trade by granting permits.

Finally, the General Directorate of Environmental Health and Food Safety (DIGESA), which is part of the Ministry of Health, plays a significant role in issues related to environmental health that intersect with sustainable agriculture. DIGESA supports SENASA in assessing the risks to human health posed by agrochemicals, including pesticides and fertilisers, which might represent a threat to public health and the environment. It also oversees the quality of water resources for human consumption, which is essential for sustainable agriculture.

Significant challenges must be addressed despite a well-defined allocation of roles and responsibilities. MIDAGRI, charged with managing agriculture and forestry, frequently encounters dilemmas due to opposing objectives. In particular, ANA falls under the scope of MIDAGRI, yet its mandate extends well beyond water use for agriculture and can therefore result in conflicts (OECD, 2021[6]). Additionally, there are sectors with overlapping authority, whereby co-ordination and execution prove to be complex. Establishing political transparency, legitimacy and stability, and enhancing collaborative efforts across the local, regional and national government levels, is critical for advancing robust sustainable agriculture initiatives.

A framework of major laws and strategies supports the foundation of sustainable agricultural management. The 1993 Constitution declared Peru’s natural resources as national heritage. It emphasises the government’s responsibility to foster the sustainable use of natural resources. Building on this constitutional mandate, the 1997 Law for Sustainable Use of Natural Resources aims to promote and regulate resource use and foster a balance between economic growth, the conservation of natural resources and human development (MINAM, 1997[7]). The 2005 General Environmental Law (Law 28611), which laid down the principles and norms necessary to realise the right to a healthy and balanced environment and underscored the duty of effective environmental conservation (MINAM, 2005[8]). The main regulations concerning the agricultural sector’s impacts on the environment are the Laws on General Agricultural Sanitation, Water Resources, Forestry and Wildlife, and Climate Change (Box 3.1).

These laws are complemented by a framework of national strategies and plans. In 2002, the National Agreement established 35 policies (Acuerdo Nacional, 2002[9]). One of these policies was dedicated to sustainable development and environmental management, aiming to integrate ecological policy with economic, social, cultural and land-use management (Acuerdo Nacional, 2002[9]). This initiative was further advanced in 2011, with the National Strategic Planning Centre’s (CEPLAN) launch of the Bicentenary Plan: Peru in 2021 (CEPLAN, 2011[10]). This blueprint outlined six strategic axes, one of which emphasised natural resources and the environment. Key priorities under this axis are the sustainable use of natural resources, improving environmental quality (water, air and soil), adaptation to climate change and implementing the National System of Environmental Management (CEPLAN, 2011[10]).

Together, the above laws and regulations form a comprehensive legal structure that guides Peru’s approach to sustainable agriculture, emphasising environmental protection, resource management and climate resilience. However, Peru encounters obstacles in effectively enforcing these rules.

Several other policies are relevant to agriculture’s environmental performance:

• The 2019 National Plan of Family Farming 2019-2021 targets family farmers, representing 97% of agricultural units, with the objective to boost productivity, food security and efficiency. Actions include improving access to production means, providing technical assistance, strengthening associative models among farmers and promoting sustainable resource management (MINAGRI, 2019[24]).

• The 2021 National Agriculture Policy 2021–2030 intends to increase agricultural competitiveness by improving value chain integration, reducing subsistence farming and promoting sustainable practices. This includes plans to lower the vulnerability of agriculture to climate change and to enhance resource management (MIDAGRI, 2021[25]).

• The National Environment Policy for 2030 (PNA 2030) sets a strategic direction for Peru’s environmental policy framework. Its objectives focus on ecosystem conservation, climate change mitigation, pollution reduction, sustainable resource use and environmental governance (El Peruano, 2021[26]). MINAM is responsible for leading, implementing and evaluating the policy.

• The 2024 Regulation of Environmental Management of the Agricultural and Irrigation Sector (RGASAR) establishes environmental management instruments. This regulates the mechanisms for environmental adaptation processes of activities in the agricultural and irrigation sector, so that owners who do not have environmental certification can adapt their activities to current environmental regulations (MIDAGRI, 2025[27])

While this layering of laws and strategies aims to address shortcomings in previous legislation, it creates implementation challenges when co‑ordination and institutional roles are not clearly defined.

Peru is recognised as one of the most mega-diverse countries in the world, ranking eighth in terms of the number of species.3 By 2024, a total of 26 253 different species (fauna and flora) have already been registered, of which 33% are endemic. This includes around 20 375 species of flora, 569 mammals (5th in the world), 1 897 birds (3rd in the world), 663 amphibians (4th in the world), 510 reptiles, 2 422 fish and about 4 000 butterflies (1st in the world) (INEI, 2024[28]; UNDP, 2025[29]). This is facilitated by the country’s vast ecosystems and variation in climates and altitudes, encompassing 84 of the 104 life zones4 on the planet.

A large share of the country’s agriculture (65%) depends on native genetic resources (MIDAGRI, 2021[30]). Peru is considered a centre of origin of several crops like potatoes (of which it has more than 4 500 species), chilli peppers, sweet potatoes and Andean grains such as quinoa, among others. The forest industry also primarily relies on native species. In terms of the share of agricultural land area with sufficient semi-natural or natural habitat relative to the amount of cropland or rangeland, Peru reported a high value of 95% in 2015 (FAOSTAT, 2025[1]). This value far exceeded both the regional average for Latin America and the Caribbean of 63% and the global average of 58%.

With regards to fauna, Peru remains one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, with over 7 500 registered species. However, the number of threatened species has been increasing, with Peru’s forests encompassing high species diversity of flora and fauna that are particularly threatened (CBD, 2025[31]). A recent review of threatened species found that 389 wild fauna species are under threat, with 64 critically endangered, 122 endangered, 203 vulnerable, 103 nearly threatened, and 43 lacking sufficient data for classification (SERFOR, 2018[32]). Contributing factors primarily include agricultural expansion, illegal logging, unsustainable use of wildlife and invasive exotic species (CBD, 2025[31]).

Biodiversity loss is closely linked to ecosystem degradation, a growing concern in Peru. In 2022, around 19.3 million ha of degraded ecosystems were recorded, an increase from 16.9 million ha in 2015 (Figure 3.2). As a proportion of total land, this value represents approximately 20% of total area, which is higher than the value reported in 2019 by OECD members such as Chile (6.4%), but lower than values reported by other OECD members in the Latin America and Caribbean region, including Colombia, Costa Rica and Mexico for SDG indicator 15.3.1 (UNCCD, 2025[33]). Ecosystem degradation entails the total or partial loss of an ecosystem’s structure, function and composition, thereby reducing its resilience and capacity to provide ecosystem services. The key direct drivers of land degradation in Peru are deforestation, unsustainable agriculture, overgrazing, poor water management and mining or extractive activities. Indirect drivers are pressures from population growth, poverty, weak governance, climate change and increasing demand for resources. Deforestation, low soil organic carbon and aridity account for around 76.8% of all variables. Around 966 254 hectares of agricultural ecosystems were reported as degraded in 2022, representing 5% of total degraded land. In 2013, the department of Piura saw land degradation and desertification amounting to a cost of 13.3% of the total agricultural GDP (UNCCD, 2022[34]).

Of Peru’s three natural regions, the Selva region, which covers the Amazon, has the largest expansion of ecosystem degradation. This is primarily driven by forest fragmentation and forest loss (Figure 3.3) due to agricultural expansion (see Section 3.6.1). Illegal mining operations, mainly for gold, are also a significant driver behind land degradation in the Amazon region, as these operations highly degrade the land and water (UNCCD, 2022[34]).

The government committed to conserving its biodiversity by ratifying the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1993. In 1997, the Law on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity (No. 26839) was created and incorporated the principles and definitions of the CBD into its regulations. Peru’s national biological diversity strategy constitutes the principal planning instrument to fulfil the objectives of this law, establishing programmes and action plans aimed at conserving biodiversity. These programmes are formulated through participatory processes, where MINAM promotes the establishment of conservation mechanisms such as PNAs and the management of other natural ecosystems.

Peru adopted the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF), which commits it to restoring at least 30% of degraded ecosystems, as well as the conservation and effective management of 30% of terrestrial and marine ecosystems by 2030. Peru’s main policy measures outlined to achieve this target include strengthening the management of PNAs, implementing 30x30 management roadmap and the recognition of agrobiodiversity zones (Convention on Bioldogical Diversity, 2024[36]). Furthermore, the framework commits countries to adopt national targets reflecting the KMGBF global targets and to update their National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans in line with it (MINAM, 2025[35]).

PNAs on land and in the marine domain have been legally designated to conserve Peru’s rich biological diversity and protect the associated cultural, scenic and scientific values (MINAM, 1997[37]). They are classified as national parks, national and historic sanctuaries, national reserves, and wildlife refuges, each with distinct management objectives and zoning regulations to ensure the effective conservation of ecological values. The administration of these areas is a collaborative effort between SERNANP, regional governments and the private sector. SERNANP manages 77 areas, regional governments have stewardship over 32, and the private sector plays a crucial role in administering 142. Collectively, these protected zones cover approximately 23 million ha (Table 3.1).

The extent of protected land area has increased over time in Peru from 16% in 2005 to 22.5% in 2024 (Figure 3.4). This places Peru somewhat below the LAC average of 24.4% but significantly above the OECD average of 16.9% in 2024, highlighting the country’s progress towards the KMGBF target of restoring at least 30% of degraded ecosystems by 2030.

PNAs are not the only strategy in place to conserve and manage Peru’s ecosystems. Peru has committed to the recognition of Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) as one of the actions proposed in the 30x30 Roadmap presented at COP16. These OECMs consist of areas not formally recognised as PNAs, which are geographically defined and have clear governance and management plans in place, and finally demonstrate that the management actions implemented contribute sustainably and effectively to the in situ conservation of biodiversity (IUCN, 2025[40]). Furthermore, OECMs may have cultural, spiritual, socio-economic or other local values.

In 2024, the government approved the National Biodiversity Strategy, which aims to enable public entities and government branches to carry out effective management to reduce biodiversity degradation (MINAM, 2024[41]). Led by MINAM, the strategy aims to fulfil objectives related to climate change adaptation, the consolidation of natural resource management and strengthening research capacity by 2050.

MIDAGRI promotes agrobiodiversity zones in the country. These zones are determined by the richness of their native, cultural and ecological agrobiodiversity, in which only Indigenous Peoples develop, manage and conserve the genetic resources of the native agrobiodiversity on the fields and in the surrounding ecosystems (INIA, 2024[42]). These areas are home to domesticated plant and animal species, their wild relatives, the genetic diversity they consist of, and the culture that sustains them. There are currently eleven agrobiodiversity zones in Peru covering 233 642 ha (0.02% of total arable land in 2024) that preserve more than 9 735 native species and benefit 52 Indigenous Communities that have been managing their crops using traditional knowledge (Table 3.2).

Peru has also employed economic instruments to promote biodiversity-positive incentives, including in the agricultural sector. The MERESE (Mecanismos de Retribución por Servicios Ecosistémicos) was established in 2014 through the adoption of Law No 30215 on payments for ecosystem services (MINAM, 2014[44]). MERESE is defined broadly to include a set of schemes, tools, instruments, and incentives to generate, channel, transfer and invest economic resources in the conservation, recovery, and sustainable use of ecosystems through voluntary agreements. The aim of the MERESE law is to promote, regulate and supervise public and private Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) for the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of ecosystems to permanently secure the benefits they provide. The law gives MINAM national oversight of all PES, and requires MINAM to provide technical, administrative and financial support to local and regional governments to develop PES.

One of the MERESE incentives, the FIDA-MERESE project, incentivises farmers in the Jequetepeque and Cañete River basins in the Andean highlands to conserve and recover degraded land through payment for ecosystem services agreements. The downstream users of ecosystem services remunerate the upstream rural populations who maintain them, promoting sustainable management of ecosystems as well as increasing the incomes of communal groups from both river basins. As of 2021, the project managed to conserve and recover 15 000 ha of degraded land, with over 1 500 families directly benefiting from the project (IFAD, 2021[45]).

Peru’s organic farming industry has been growing, increasing from 53 714 ha of organic farmland in 2000 to 436 530 ha in 2024 (Figure 3.5). This represents around 1.6-2.5% of agricultural land. The number of organic producers has also increased, from 13 437 in 2000 to 89 847 in 2024. This positive trend is primarily based on the development of organic production by smallholders who aim to access international markets with better prices and quality products. Developing sustainable and competitive organic and ecological production in Peru is an objective set by the Law for the Promotion of Organic or Ecological Production (Law No. 29196).

Peru’s organic farming area represents around 1.8% of total agricultural land, which is comparable to its regional neighbours, with Argentina (3.2%) leading the group (Figure 3.6). This is somewhat below the OECD average of 8.1%, although the share of organic farming areas among OECD countries varies significantly, ranging from 19.3% in Portugal to 0.5% in the United States.

By 2022, SENASA certified 165 902 ha of organic crops in Peru, including coffee, cocoa, quinoa and banana, representing 20% of the total harvested crop area of 827 951 ha for these commodities (Figure 3.7). That said, the growth rate of organic crop area has overall been stagnant since 2016, with a decrease of 38 615 ha in certified organic areas from 2021 to 2022 (a 18.9% reduction). This highlights both the achievements in organic agriculture as well as the required efforts to reach the 2022 target of 29.5%.

Organic food suppliers must have the appropriate certifications to ensure the integrity of their products. In 2022, Peru enacted the Regulation on the Certification and Supervision of Organic Production, which complements the Technical Regulation for organic products. SENASA has the authority to certify and oversee organic producers and supervise other aspects necessary for the operation of organic production. This seeks to ensure that products labelled as organic meet rigorous standards, whether they are sold domestically or internationally.

The National Organic Production Seal, approved in 2022, seeks to enhance the trade of organic products, as well as their regulation (MIDAGRI, 2022[54]). Other countries in the region with a national seal for their organic production already benefit from a stronger position in international markets. Furthermore, the Laboratory for Detecting Living Modified Organisms led by INIA is responsible for checking, finding and measuring living modified organisms in farm and forest products nationwide (INIA, 2011[55]). INIA’s support extends to training programmes on modern organic farming techniques, from harvest management to the use of organic fertilisers and effective microorganisms (INIA, 2022[56]).

Peru is among the few Latin American countries that decided to ban the entry of living modified organisms intended for release into the environment, due to the potential damage to genetic diversity in ecosystems. In 2011, Law No. 29811 was enacted to implement a decade-long prohibition on the entry and cultivation of genetically modified organisms in agriculture and breeding, until the country implements the necessary technical, regulatory, and institutional capacity to evaluate and manage them safely (MINAM, 2011[57]). This law makes exceptions for genetically modified organisms used in confined research, pharmaceuticals and imported products for human or animal consumption, all subject to strict risk management protocols in line with international standards. MINAM is the lead authority, co‑ordinating with other ministries to enforce conservation policies and promote scientific research in biotechnology and biosafety. In 2021, Law No. 3111 extended the ban on genetically modified organisms until 2035 to prevent their entry and production in the national territory (MINAM, 2021[58]). Finally, Peru will establish a specific regulation to promote the safe use of New Breeding Techniques (NBTs) – such as gene editing – so that, when they do not involve the introduction of foreign genetic material, they are not classified as living modified organisms under Peruvian law (MINAM, 2025[59]).

Peru faces the widespread issue of soil degradation across its natural regions, with up to 99% of land threatened by erosion and significant areas suffering from desertification and salinisation (MINAGRI, 2016[60]; CEPAL, 2013[61]). Desertification, the transformation of fertile land into desert, is driven by both unsustainable management practices, including vegetation removal from forests, intensive agricultural practices, soil contamination, land conflicts and exploitation, and mining (IFAD, 2010[62]), as well as external pressures such as climate change and droughts.

In 2014, Peru ranked third for the extension of arid land in South America, after Argentina and Brazil (EC JRC, 2014[63]). Around one-third of its land was in some state of desertification, with 3.9 million ha (3% of total national land) classified as desertified regions, while 30 million ha (24%) were in the process of desertification. The desertified areas are primarily in the Costa region and the semi-arid mountain regions, affecting around 1.1 million people. The areas in the process of desertification are in the Peruvian Amazon, resulting from deforestation. This affects around 7.7 million people.

Terrestrial barren land represents around 7% of Peru’s land cover with 9 087 300 hectares in 2022, a value that has remained relatively stable since 1992. This is higher than other regional peers; Chile leads with 16% (Figure 3.8). While this does not directly indicate soil desertification, surfaces without natural vegetation are much more prone to desertification and erosion. Simultaneously, Peru’s average portion of natural vegetation embedded in agricultural lands was 38% in 2015, significantly higher than the 10%5 proposed minimum as a planetary boundary (FAOSTAT, 2025[1]). However, this calculated average does not consider significant agro-climatic differences amongst regions, as well as differences between the type of agricultural land or product being farmed.

The drivers of soil desertification differ by region. In the Costa region, soil salinisation, water and wind erosion, and soil contamination from mining activities are the primary causes of soil desertification. In the Sierra region, water and wind erosion, soil compaction from overgrazing, and soil contamination are the key issues. Water erosion is the primary contributor to soil desertification in the Selva region (MINAM, 2016[65]).

Climate change intensifies these effects, especially in dry regions, which leads to severe consequences such as decreased land resilience to climate variations, disrupted water and nutrient cycles, and heightened fire and dust storm risks (IFAD, 2010[62]). These impacts carry significant economic costs; threaten biodiversity; and can result in famines, forced migrations, and potential social and political instability. While some degraded soils can be restored through improved agricultural practices and traditional methods, proactively preventing desertification is typically less costly.

Soil erosion is primarily driven by water erosion in Peru and poses a serious risk to water and food security. In 2011, severe erosion affected around 8 million ha (6.2%) of the total national land of 128 million ha. This was mostly in the Sierra region (5.8 million ha), followed by the Costa (1.9 million ha) and the Selva (0.3 million ha) (MINAM, 2016[65]). This process is the most severe in the high Andean region due to the steep slopes, lack of vegetation cover and volatile high-intensity rainfall (SENAMHI, 2017[66]). Some of these areas have up to 48% of their surface affected by water erosion, with a level ranging from moderate to high (Figure 3.9). The region also encompasses key agricultural activities and provides water ecosystem services for the rest of the country. Around 31 million ha of the national area had moderate soil erosion, and 33.9 million ha had light erosion, and were located mostly in the Sierra and Costa regions (MINAM, 2016[65]).

Soil salinisation is a further threat to Peru’s soils, as salt accumulation can severely impede plants’ uptake of water and reduce crop productivity. Human-induced soil salinisation is primarily driven by land-use changes, overgrazing and irrigation. Salt-affected soils are mainly found in arid and semi-arid regions, and it is very difficult to reclaim soils once they are salinised. Soil salinisation affects around 40% (1.2 million ha) of arable agricultural land in the Costa region (FAO, n.d.[67]). The lack of feasibility studies prior to implementing irrigation systems had resulted in an increase in drainage and salinity problems on 250 000 ha in the Costa region by 2015 (FAO, 2015[68]).

Peru has signed a convention with the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and mitigate the effects of drought through effective action at all levels, supported by international co-operation and partnership arrangements (United Nations, 2024[69]). Moreover, the “Reduction of Degradation of Agricultural Soils” Budgetary Programme was launched in 2013 to enhance the sustainable management of soil resources in the agricultural sector (MEF, 2019[70]). This programme is focused on informing farmers on the suitability of soils for various crops, alongside the necessary skills and techniques for appropriately using these resources. However, the reach of these programmes is limited.

Building on this foundation, INIA has been researching and promoting practices to counteract soil erosion, enhance fertility and bolster agricultural resilience against climate change. For example, by 2022, INIA had introduced innovative soil management strategies across its research stations, demonstrating the effectiveness of organic and calcium amendments in improving soil quality and crop yields (INIA, 2022[56]). Moreover, INIA’s extension services have trained farmers on sustainable farming and land management practices to combat soil degradation. In 2022, several training programmes reached hundreds of producers across various regions, focusing on organic amendments, soil sampling, and using vegetative cover to rehabilitate soils and boost crop productivity (INIA, 2022[56]).

Notwithstanding these initiatives, the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics reports that the adoption of soil conservation practices among farmers needs to be higher, with only 0.8% of farmers having carried out practices that prevent or minimise soil degradation in 2022 (Figure 3.10) (INEI, 2023[71]). This discrepancy between efforts and outcomes underscores the need for more effective support, monitoring capacity and technical assistance for farmers to foster the wider adoption of sustainable agricultural practices.

SENASA seeks to protect animal and plant health for the sector (SENASA, 2005[72]). This involves measures to prevent the entry and spread of regulated pests and diseases alongside strategies to manage the rise of economically impactful pests and diseases. With 64 control posts positioned across the country, SENASA plays an important role in halting the entry and proliferation of regulated pests and ensuring the progress made in eradicating these threats is maintained. SENASA effectively co‑ordinates these efforts together with MINAM, SERNAP, SERFOR and MINSA.

In 2022, SENASA launched a targeted campaign against the fruit fly in several departments (SENASA, 2022[73]). This initiative provided fruit and vegetable producers with essential tools and services for effective fruit fly control, including trap deployment, establishing a surveillance system and direct pest control actions.

In 2023, a comprehensive vaccination campaign was initiated to immunise over 150 000 animals in at-risk areas (SENASA, 2023[74]). Aimed at preventing the spread of diseases like anthrax, which can be exacerbated by flood-induced soil contamination, this effort was designed to protect livestock and public health (SENASA, 2023[74]). The initiative, targeting 21 000 families in several areas of the Costa region, underscores the importance of specialised teams in safeguarding livestock health (SENASA, 2023[74]).

However, new pests and diseases emerge with climate change, further exacerbating the problem. This requires SENASA to constantly revise its strategies. The lack of access to the latest information or resources to fight pests and diseases effectively within small-scale farming, which predominates Peru’s agricultural sector, poses a significant challenge. This highlights the need for better education and awareness about managing pests and diseases, particularly in rural areas and among small-scale farmers. Moreover, even though new technologies can help monitor and control pests and diseases more efficiently, their widespread use is limited by the high costs of these technologies, difficulties in accessing them and a lack of knowledge on how to use them correctly.

Levels of pesticide use in Peru remain much lower than the OECD average and those reported by several countries in the region, including Costa Rica and Colombia (Figure 3.11). However, while levels remain below those reported by other countries in the region, pesticide use per hectare has steadily increased in Peru. This is illustrated by the growth in pesticide sales in Peru, which have increased over the past two decades at a rate of approximately 8% per year, from 0.44 kg/ha of pesticide use in 2000 to a peak of 2.18 kg/ha in 2020. In 2022, pesticide use dropped back down to 1.61 kg/ha.

Peru has made progress in establishing a regulatory framework for the use of pesticides, assigning responsibilities across various levels of government. In 2015, the government established the National System for Agricultural Pesticides alongside the regulation to safeguard human health and the environment, maintain pesticide products’ effectiveness, and promote their proper use and management (MINAGRI, 2015[76]). In this framework, SENASA serves as Peru’s lead agency for the National System of Pesticides for Agricultural Use, with responsibilities covering regulation, authorisation and control of the registration and marketing of pesticides for agricultural use. Monitoring, however, falls outside the agency’s competencies. Regional and local governments and SENASA provide training concerning good agricultural practices (GAP). In 2022, SENASA organised 1 442 Farmer Field Schools in Good Agricultural and Livestock Practices, training over 32 000 producers in food safety in agriculture (SENASA, 2022[73]).

Subsequently, in compliance with the regulation, in 2016, the Ministry of Health established the maximum residue limits for agricultural pesticides in food intended for human consumption (MINSA, 2016[77]). All foods exceeding these limits are considered risky and unfit for human consumption. The use of some pesticides is completely prohibited.6 National, regional and local health authorities are responsible for conducting surveillance within their jurisdiction to monitor and control the maximum pesticide residue limits in foods specified by the regulation. To oversee compliance with this regulation, in 2019, SENASA created the new National Programme for Monitoring Contaminants in Primary Agricultural Foods and Feeds (SENASA, 2019[78]). According to this norm, SENASA is tasked with compiling an annual report detailing the findings regarding chemical residues and microbiological contaminants of primary agricultural foods and animal feed.

Despite the relatively low overall level of pesticide use per hectare in Peru, national initiatives monitoring pesticide residues in food have found several instances where samples have exceeded MLRs, In the cases of staple foods such as wheat and potatoes, the proportion of samples exceeding MRLs remained well below 4% (SENASA, 2023[79]). However, this proportion increased substantially when the samples focused mostly on fruits and vegetables, where, on average, over a quarter of pesticide waste samples exceeded the MRLs in 2021 (SENASA, 2021[80]).7 In 2023, 22% of plant-based foods that were inspected had pesticide residues above the maximum limit (SENASA, 2023[79]). These results were primarily driven by seven horticultural products (including pepper, tomato and broccoli) which jointly accounted for over 50% of samples where MRLs were exceeded. Furthermore, traces of pesticides were also found in 17% of the samples of organic products, such as quinoa and coffee in 2022 (SENASA, 2023[81]). Given the current exposure to pesticide contamination in the Andean region (Honles, 2022[82]) as well as the potential threats of pesticide use on biodiversity, there is a need for stricter regulation and continued increase adoption of good agricultural practices to safeguard the environment and public health.

Nutrient input per hectare (both nitrogen and phosphorus) in Peru is significantly below regional and OECD averages. Nevertheless, current levels have increased compared with 2000: nitrogen input per hectare of cropland rose from 37.2 kg/ha of cropland in 2000 to 45 kg/ha in 2022 (Figure 3.12). For phosphorus, the period 2012-22 saw an average annual decline of 3.47%, with a sharp decrease observed in Peru, as well as in several regional neighbours, from 2020 onwards (FAOSTAT, 2025[83])

Looking only at cropland, trends in nutrient balances show nitrogen and phosphorus balances well below the average value estimated for OECD countries when using FAOSTAT methodology8 (Figure 3.13). Over time, trends in the nutrient balances of phosphorus and nitrogen have differed. In the case of nitrogen, there has generally been a moderate increasing trend, whereas the phosphorus balance is low and has been decreasing, suggesting a decrease in the excess nutrient load. That said, despite increases in nitrogen surpluses, the values remain below the average value for OECD countries when using the same methodology.

While the nutrient surpluses in Peru are below some regional peers, the efficiency of nitrogen application on cropland in Peru for 2022 was estimated at 42.7%, a value lower than the Latin America & Caribbean average of 64% and the global average of 63% (FAOSTAT, 2025[1]). On the other hand, the efficiency of phosphorus application was much higher at 77.7%. This highlights that there is scope for further reducing the amount of excess nutrients by improving nutrient use efficiency through the adoption of improved practices.

Nutrient inputs in agricultural soils lead to the release of ammonia (NH₃) through volatilisation, contributing to air pollution. This ammonia can later be deposited onto soil and water, causing further contamination, or form fine aerosols that pose risks to human health.

Total ammonia emissions from agriculture in Peru are estimated at 187 600 tonnes in 2022 (Figure 3.14), significantly lower than the OECD average of 364 144 tonnes (OECD, 2025[51]). Over time, as a result of the expansion of the agricultural sector, ammonia emissions have steadily increased. The relative contribution of Peru’s agricultural ammonia emissions is 90% of total national emissions. The contribution of the livestock sector to the total ammonia emissions was 25%, while crop production represented 65% of agricultural emissions.

Reducing ammonia emissions in the agricultural sector remains a significant challenge. The rapid expansion of poultry farms in the central areas of the Costa region, such as the Alto Laran district, is a hotspot for ammonia emissions (Martin Van Damme, 2018[86]). Peru has been monitoring inorganic chemicals found in the Rimac River, measuring a decrease in ammonia from 0.328 milligrams per litre in 2016 to 0.21 in 2023 (INEI, 2024[28]).

Peru is the eighth most water-rich country in the world and third in Latin America, following Brazil and Colombia (OECD, 2021[87]). The Amazon River, the world’s largest and deepest river, primarily originates from two rivers, the Ucayali and the Marañon, both originating in Peru’s Andean glaciers (FAO, 2015[88]). The country’s glaciers are in the high Andean areas, around 5 000 metres above sea level, and are solid reserves of freshwater for rivers and lakes. However, climate change has driven their continuous decline. The total glacial area has decreased by 53.1%, from 2 043 km² over the period 1962‑1970 to 944 km² in 2016-2023 (INEI, 2024[28]).

The distribution of freshwater resource availability across the country is asymmetrical. Peru has three main water basins: Pacific, the Atlantic and Lake Titicaca, administered by 159 hydrological units providing water across the country. Around 98.2% of available freshwater comes from the Atlantic slope which encompasses the Amazon basin, supplying a territory where 31% of the population lives, while only 1.5% comes from the Pacific, where 65% of the population is concentrated. Despite the scarce water resources from the Pacific watershed, more than two-thirds of the agricultural GDP originates there (FAO, 2015[89]).

Peru ranks 37^th among United Nations members for the level of water stress and 3rd in Latin America and the Caribbean (World Resources Institute, 2023[90]). As a “high water stress” country, it currently withdraws 40-80% of its available water supply. The water stress levels vary across the country. The Costa region, housing the majority of the population and characterised by its extensive agricultural activities and as the leading export contributor, is the most adversely affected area. For example, Lima, the Lambayeque and Arequipa departments are considered to have extremely high water stress (>80%), while other regions such as the Selva region where the Amazonas or Ucayali departments are situated, have low water stress (<10%) (Table ‎3.4).

The Peruvian economy is dependent on the export of water-intensive agri-food commodities such as green asparagus, grapes and avocados. With the agricultural production of these products being concentrated along the Costa region, water demand has soared in these areas, intensifying water scarcity. The loss of glaciers over time starts to contribute to water stress during dry seasons, as less water is available, adding to the challenges the agricultural sector is facing (CEPLAN, 2023[91]). Climate events, such as El Niño, aggravated by the climate crisis, alter the hydrological cycle exponentially, reducing the water supply due to massive floods (CEPLAN, 2024[92]).

The share of freshwater withdrawal for agriculture is significant, making up around 85% of total freshwater withdrawal in 2021 (Figure 3.15). This places Peru on the higher end of the scale among its regional neighbours, with only Chile and Colombia measuring greater shares of water abstractions for agriculture. The region generally sees higher rates than the OECD average of 49%.

High water stress levels in certain regions pose significant challenges for farming. In the Costa region, where the resource is already scarce, population growth and water-demanding agricultural products exacerbate the issue. Water security gaps in agriculture cost Peru 0.7-0.8% of GDP every year (WBG, 2023[93]). Part of the problem is that the execution of public works and public-private partnerships has faced several challenges, including delays, cost overruns and corruption.

Irrigation systems associated with robust water management can improve productivity, encouraging farmers to harvest higher-value crops and build resilience to climate variability. Considering an inclusive definition of irrigation systems in Peru, around 34.4% of the harvested crop area was irrigated in 2024, while 53.6% of agricultural productive units with harvested crops had an irrigation system (Figure 3.16). The irrigation system used generally employs traditional and ancient forms of irrigation, which include gravity irrigation with furrow irrigation via open canal networks, unlined with rudimentary water intakes (INEI, 2023[94]).

According to FAO data, Peru has around 10.6% of agricultural land equipped for irrigation (Figure 3.17). This is one of the highest values in the region, followed by Chile (10.4%) and Costa Rica (9.4%). However, Peru has only reached around 41% of its irrigation potential, whilst 57% of the country’s existing irrigation and drainage infrastructure is in poor condition (World Bank, 2023[96]).

The adoption of pressurised irrigation systems such as drip, micro-sprinkler, sprinkler, multi-gates and sleeves has been increasing in recent years. Approximately 25.4% of farmers who have an irrigation system in place used these advanced systems in 2022, a substantial increase from the 13.4% recorded in 2014 (Figure 3.18). At the same time, the share of irrigated agricultural land with pressurised irrigation systems was 19.1% in 2024.

ANA heads the National System for Water Resources Management. This collaborative network includes government ministries, regional and local governments, water user organisations, and representatives of farmers and Indigenous Communities. This system promotes integrated water management and services nationwide, aligning efforts in sanitation, weather forecasting, energy and mining, environmental assessment, and coastal management.

ANA operates from Lima with 14 regional offices managing the 159 hydrological units across the country. These decentralised bodies operate the regional management and administration of water resources, including authorising water use rights, monitoring water source use and managing economic retribution for water use. They also assess and manage risks associated with glaciers, lagoons and groundwater sources. Seventy-two local administrative water authorities and 14 river basin councils support ANA, contributing to a comprehensive and participatory approach to water management.

While such multi-level governance system is appropriate in theory, challenges persist in inter-sectoral co-ordination and public engagement in water resources management, as well as the uneven participation from various water users (ANA, 2023[98]; OECD, 2021[87]). As ANA is under the responsibility of MIDAGRI, the responsibility of overseeing water management within the scope of agriculture presents conflicting objectives, hindering coherence towards sustainable water management as well as environmental objectives. For example, MIDAGRI and ANA are both working on guidelines for groundwater management individually, without much co‑ordination. With agriculture consuming over 80% of the nation’s water, this arrangement subordinates the national body to the primary water user it must oversee.

This institutional design can favour agricultural interests in water allocation and infrastructure decisions, undermining the needs of other critical sectors such as environmental protection, domestic consumption and energy. Consequently, ANA’s capacity for impartial enforcement, promotion of water use efficiency, and integrated basin-level management is structurally weakened, hindering Peru’s progress toward sustainable water security.

Peru also grapples with conflicts across multiple sectors, such as urban development, mining, agriculture and conservation. This is exacerbated by the lack of a national land-use policy and limited co-ordination with economic sectors (OECD, 2021[6]). Furthermore, Peru’s institutions and approaches are still biased towards supply augmentation solutions rather than water demand management. Despite having a sophisticated legal framework, Peru’s institutional capacity for its implementation still needs to be developed, indicating a significant gap between policy and practice in water management (OECD, 2021[6]).

In 2012, the budgetary initiative “Optimisation of Water Resources for Agricultural Use” was established to increase the efficiency of the use of water resources in the agricultural sector (MEF, 2019[70]; MINAGRI, 2019[99]). This initiative invests in irrigation projects, including advanced irrigation techniques. It offers tailored programmes aimed at enhancing the expertise of farmers and regional and local government professionals in water resources management and use. Furthermore, the 2015-2025 National Irrigation Policy and Strategy Guidelines lay a foundation for enhancing water use efficiency and expanding irrigation access in dryland regions (MINAGRI, 2015[100]).

Significant investments have targeted extensive irrigation projects in the Costa region to expand the agricultural frontier and boost productivity across the country. Using public-private partnerships between 2002 and 2022, the Private Investment Promotion Agency (ProInversión) facilitated the launch of three major irrigation projects through this model, attracting investments totalling USD 1 118 million (Table 3.5).

These large-scale irrigation projects can enhance food and water security, so long as they remain attached to robust water management. For example, the Chavimochic Special Project aims at leveraging the Santa River’s water resources to irrigate 144 385 ha across the Chao, Virú, Moche and Chicama valleys; address Trujillo’s drinking water shortage; and facilitate electric power generation (Chavimochic, 2024[102]). Following the completion of its first and second phases in 1997, the USD 960 million investment has significantly enhanced irrigation for 28 263 ha, with plans to extend irrigation in the third phase (Chavimochic, 2024[102]).

Beyond these investments, the government has also prioritised irrigation facilities through its 25 Emblematic Projects, which are part of Peru’s national strategy to expand irrigated agricultural land and modernise water infrastructure (El Peruano, 2025[103]). Focus has also been put on irrigation for small-scale farmers. In 2013, the establishment of the “Sierra Azul” Fund marked a significant step towards addressing the challenges of water access and management for agricultural activities in the Andean highlands (Sierra region), particularly in areas above 1 500 metres above sea level (Congreso de la Republica, 2013[104]). The fund’s central mission is to boost farm productivity and promote sustainable development by funding the construction, rehabilitation and upgrade of essential irrigation infrastructure, such as canals, dams and reservoirs or qochas. Established in the same year, the “Mi Riego” Fund is dedicated to empowering communities in the high Andes to navigate climate variability better, thereby aiming to markedly decrease poverty and extreme poverty levels.

Supply-side interventions have improved the availability of water, but challenges remain with regard to curbing agricultural water demands in many other countries. The agricultural sector is subject to preferential water tariffs. The water prices, which are paid in soles per cubic meter, differ depending on whether the water is sourced from surface water or groundwater, as well as the water availability level and the exploitation rate. In all cases, water used for agricultural purposes is priced lower compared to non-agricultural uses, including industry, mining, or public use (see Chapter 2). According to ANA, in 2017, the revenues collected from abstraction and treated wastewater discharge fees amounted to around USD 50 million, of which 15% corresponded to agricultural uses (OECD, 2021[6]).

The Ecosystem Services Compensation Mechanisms for water regulation employ strategic management and conservation measures, recovery initiatives, sustainable practices, and traditional ecosystem approaches. These mechanisms are designed to generate, sustain, enhance or optimise the availability and quantity of water for various purposes, including residential, agricultural, energy production, aquaculture and industrial applications (Congreso de la Republica, 2014[105]; MEF, 2015[106]; MINAM, 2016[107]; 2021[108]; 2015[109]). By 2020, Peru had recorded 52 hydrological initiatives under this system, a significant rise from 17 in 2013.

Peru has seen a moderate advance in implementing its goal of integrated water resources management. Advances have been made in developing basin water resource management plans and updating the National Water Resources Policy and Strategy. Additionally, strides have been made in managing transboundary basins, supported by international agreements and carried out in co‑ordination with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (ANA, 2023[98]).

Only 25% of monitored water bodies in Peru have “good” ambient water quality9 (World Bank, 2023[96]). In inland areas, agricultural pollution has the most significant impact on water quality due to runoff from nitrogen, pesticides and sediments. The Pacific watershed is significantly affected by water pollution, and oil and mercury spills affect the Amazonian rivers in the Atlantic watershed, often due to illegal mining activities (OECD, 2021[87]). Water pollution has also been linked to water conflicts involving Indigenous Communities, which are often adversely affected by these environmental issues.

Rehabilitating and safeguarding the quality of water resources within natural sources and their corresponding ecosystems is an objective of the Water Resources Policy and Strategy (MINAGRI, 2015[15]). To implement this objective, ANA launched the National Strategy for Water Quality Improvement, presenting an action plan encompassing technical solutions, regulatory frameworks and management strategies (ANA, 2016[112]). This plan establishes immediate and long-term objectives, identifies essential stakeholders, sets performance metrics, and outlines anticipated results over ten years. It is designed to improve water quality by reducing pollutants in wastewater, addressing environmental issues, conserving water for future use and strengthening institutional capacity.

Furthermore, the government has implemented Environmental Quality Standards (ECA) to determine acceptable levels of various pollutants in air, water and soil. This forms the backbone of legal regulations, public policies and environmental management initiatives (MINAM, 2005[8]). Since their initial implementation in 2008, ECAs for water were updated in 2015 and 2017, with consolidated regulations that aim to guarantee these standards adapt to evolving environmental needs and remain effective in protecting the ecosystem (MINAM, 2008[113]; 2009[114]; 2015[115]; 2017[116]).

ANA has initiated a comprehensive approach to monitor and identify contaminating sources to assess water quality in various natural bodies, including rivers, lakes and lagoons. For this purpose, it employs a protocol that establishes uniform criteria and technical procedures for water quality monitoring (ANA, 2016[117]).

While Peru has developed its institutional framework for water management, co-ordination and capacity gaps remain an obstacle to effective implementation. Additionally, the periods of political instability have impacted water and sanitation, with four Ministers of Environment being appointed over the same period and staff turnover in the public administration resulting in shifting priorities and budgets (OECD, 2021[87]).

Peru contributes only 0.4% to global GHG emissions. Total emissions increased from 171 176 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (Gt CO₂-eq) in 2010, to 194 895 Gt CO₂-eq in 2021, with a peak of 212 782 Gt CO₂-eq in 2020 (Figure 3.19) followed by a decline in 2021 (latest available data).

Considering the contribution of Peru’s different sectors to the country’s GHG emissions, land use, land-use change, and forestry emerged as the most significant contributor, accounting for around 43.5% of total emissions in 2021 (Table 3.6). This stems from the transformation of forest lands and grasslands into croplands, or tree loss and overall forest degradation due to mining in the Peruvian Amazon. The direct share of agricultural GHG emissions was measured at around 15.3% and it represents half of the emissions from the energy sector.

Since 2000, the value of agricultural output (in USD constant) has more than doubled while emissions in agriculture have increased by 17%, implying a large reduction in the GHG emission intensity in the agricultural sector. Between 2000 and 2021, the average growth rate of agricultural GHG emissions was approximately 0.8%, with total emissions increasing from 25 424 Gt CO₂-eq in 2000 to 29 773 Gt CO₂-eq in 2021 (Figure 3.20). The majority of the increases in GHG was concentrated in the 2000-2010 period, where growth rates exceeded 1%, with the average growth rate of GHG agricultural emissions more than halving since 2011. The contribution of the various agricultural components has remained relatively unchanged, with enteric fermentation accounting for the largest share of emissions throughout the entire period, followed by direct N₂O emissions from soil management and indirect N₂O emissions from soil management.

Enteric fermentation stands out as the primary direct emissions source, accounting for around 53% of direct agricultural emissions in 2021 (Figure 3.21). This incorporates the digestive process of livestock, releasing methane, a potent GHG. Emissions from soil management are the second-largest contributor at around 35% of direct agricultural GHG emissions. The primary GHG emitted from the agricultural sector is methane (CH4) with 60.8%, followed by nitrous oxide (N20) with 37.8% and finally carbon dioxide (CO₂) with 1.5% (UNFCCC, 2025[118]). However, comparatively, Peru has a particularly high GHG intensity for cereals (excluding rice), at 0.4kg CO₂eq/kg product, compared to 0.2 CO₂eq/kg product for both Latin America and the Caribbean and the global average (FAOSTAT, 2025[1]). This presents an opportunity for emission reduction in Peru’s cereal production system.

Peru ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 (Congreso de la Republica, 1993[119]). Peru ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002, formally taking effect in 2005, whereby it committed itself alongside the other participating countries to limit and reduce GHG emissions by agreed individual targets (UNFCCC, 1997[120]; MRREE, 2002[121]). At COP18 in 2012, the Kyoto Protocol entered its second commitment period, extending from 2013 to 2020 (UNFCCC, 2024[122]). The momentum continued into 2013 at COP19, where countries agreed to begin or intensify the preparation of their National Determined Contributions (NDCs), scheduled for submission in 2015 (UNFCCC, 2024[122]). In 2016, Peru took a leadership role by being the first country in Hispanic America to ratify the Paris Agreement (MRREE, 2016[123]).

The National Strategy on Climate Change 2050 establishes Peru’s framework for handling climate issues, aligning the country with its international obligations under the UNFCCC (MINAM, 2015[124]). Aimed at adapting to adverse effects and leveraging opportunities arising from climate change, the strategy sets forth a vision for sustainable, low-carbon development in Peru. This was updated and passed by the Supreme Decree in 2024. To complement this national effort, every region must formulate a regional climate change strategy that identifies vulnerable sectors and areas and outlines measures for reducing climate change impacts and enhancing GHG mitigation (Congreso de la Republica, 2002[125]). Regional governments advancing their strategy are supported by specialised working groups focused on climate change.

Under the Paris Agreement, Peru’s NDCs set a commitment to limit the country’s net GHG emissions to 208.8 Mt CO₂-eq by 2030, representing a 30% reduction in GHG emissions from a 2010 baseline (Convention on Bioldogical Diversity, 2024[36]). Additionally, there is an ambitious target to reduce emissions by a further 10%, conditional upon receiving international support and funding. To meet this objective, Peru must reverse the increasing trajectory of GHG emissions seen in recent years.

Additionally, Peru acknowledges the potential to further reduce its net emissions to 179.0 Mt CO₂‑eq, contingent upon securing international financial support and favourable circumstances, setting this as a conditional objective (MINAM, 2020[126]). Peru’s 2015 NDC submissions were updated and included the commitment to reduce GHG emissions by 40% against the 2015 business-as-usual scenario by 2030. This includes a 30% reduction through unconditional efforts and an additional 10% contingent on external support. The baseline scenario projected 2030 emissions at 298.3 Mt CO₂-eq, emphasising Peru’s commitment to climate action.

The government has approved 62 mitigation measures in key sectors such as energy, industrial processes, agriculture, land use and forestry, and waste, as part of its NDCs to combat climate change. This includes six specific mitigation measures to reduce direct emissions from the agricultural sector (Table 3.7).

Further, tackling deforestation is a key challenge for Peru, as land use and land-use change are the main contributors to its GHG emissions. Given the role of agricultural expansion in forest loss, this brings specific challenges for the agricultural sector (see Section 3.5). In the context of its Paris Agreement NDCs, Peru has formally committed to implementing eight measures to tackle deforestation. These measures can be considered REDD+10 initiatives, programmes focused on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, enhancing conservation and sustainable forest management, and increasing forest carbon reserves in developing countries (Table ‎3.8).

Peru exhibits seven of the nine vulnerabilities identified by the UNFCCC as indicators of countries that are particularly at risk from climate change impacts (MINAM, 2015[124]): 1) low-lying coastal zones susceptible to sea-level rise; 2) arid and semi-arid regions prone to water scarcity; 3) areas vulnerable to extreme weather events such as floods, droughts and desertification; 4) fragile mountain ecosystems that are sensitive to temperature variations; 5) regions at high risk of natural disasters; 6) urban areas with significant air pollution challenges; and 7) an economy heavily reliant on the revenue from the extraction and consumption of fossil fuels (MINAM, 2015[124]).

There has been a significant increase in extreme weather events, from 1 608 cases reported in 2003 to 3 562 cases in 2018, including severe rainfall, landslides, frosts and floods (CEPLAN, 2024[129]). In 2023, heavy rainfalls represented 47% of total emergencies caused by natural phenomena, ranking in first place every year since 2017 (INEI, 2024[28]). This was followed by strong winds (18%) and low temperatures (14%).

Recent years have demonstrated Peruvian agriculture’s vulnerability to extreme weather events. Approximately 1 550 000 ha of agricultural production were damaged due to natural disasters from 2013 to 2022 (INEI, 2023[3]). Furthermore, agricultural GDP decreased by 3% in 2023 (the lowest since 1992), largely attributed to the El Niño phenomenon that affected the Costa region (BCRP, 2023[130]). Products such as blueberries, grapes, avocados and mangoes, which rely on cooler temperatures, were especially affected during the unusually warm 2023 season. The late 2024 drought impacted both the 2024 harvest and the planting for 2025 (Tridge, 2024[131]), followed by heavy rainfalls in March 2025. These events especially affected producers along the northern coast.

Vulnerability to such disasters is further intensified by limited risk management practices. In 2018, it was estimated that around 5.5 million Peruvians were at risk from intense rainfall, 2.6 million faced exposure to droughts, 5.6 million were susceptible to frosts and cold spells, and 14 million were at risk of food insecurity (MINAM, 2018[132]).

These impacts are uneven across the country, depending on socio-economic, regional and poverty factors. Low-income populations are particularly susceptible to climate-related health problems exacerbated by social and geographical factors. Additionally, rising temperatures, climate variability, and inadequate sanitation and waste management may increase the prevalence of various infectious diseases. In 2023, public spending on disaster risk prevention amounted to around PEN 2.9 million (USD 750 000), an increase of 108% from 2022 (INEI, 2023[3]).

The World Bank’s Climate Change Knowledge Portal predicts that Peru will experience a temperature rise of 1.1-1.9°C between 2040 and 2059 (World Bank, 2024[133]). Climate change is also expected to exacerbate the impact of the El Niño phenomenon in Peru, intensifying its features and modifying its occurrences (MINAM, 2018[132]). Likewise, climate variability, particularly temperature and precipitation, is expected to worsen (CEPLAN, 2024[129]).

Consequently, outlooks on the effects of climate change on Peru’s agriculture predict crop production declines. Looking at key crops such as rice, potatoes and coffee across various planting districts, a 33% loss in agricultural GDP by 2100 has been forecast (IDB, 2016[134]). The effect worsens over time, with nearly all crops facing production declines under all scenarios. Coffee production might initially increase but then decline, with rice being the most adversely affected. Changes in crop productivity are also expected due to variations in water resource availability and the incidence of pests and diseases. Expanding the range of crops analysed and improving climate information at scales relevant to crop cultivation can support better impact assessment and comparison.

The impact of climate change on permanent crops in Peru for the period 2011-50 has been forecasted to result in economic losses of up to 2.24% for mangoes, 3.36% for avocados, 0.28% for oranges and 2.13% for cocoa, as a percentage of the agricultural GDP of 2011 (CIES, 2014[135]). Conversely, lemon cultivation could see economic gains of up to 0.14% of the 2011 agricultural GDP.

A more optimistic view on the impact of climate change on Peruvian agriculture for 2000-50 suggests potential yield increases for crops such as rice, barley, wheat, cassava and irrigated maize (IFPRI, 2019[136]). Despite minor yield decreases expected for rainfed maize and more significant losses for sugarcane, these effects can be managed globally. The variable impact on livestock productivity highlights the importance of region-specific agricultural strategies to address the uneven effects of climate change across different areas.

Peru’s adaptation approach facilitates the design and implementation of strategies to minimise exposure and vulnerability while enhancing the adaptive capacities of vulnerable populations against climate-related risks. Using scientific data, the model has enabled the creation of risk scenarios for 2030 and 2050; the identification of critical issues; the setting of adaptation priorities; and the formulation of specific measures complete with indicators, objectives and timelines for execution.

The 2021 National Adaptation Plan to Climate Change (NAP) guides efforts towards climate change adaptation. It establishes a set of strategic actions and adaptations. Its strategic actions are: 1) enhance the capabilities of vulnerable populations; 2) promote sustainable forest management; 3) implement best agriculture practices; 4) strengthen fishing and aquaculture; 5) execute ecosystem management and conservation strategies; 6) enhance inter-institutional collaboration and improve the water supply system; 7) adopt best practices for agricultural soil management; 8) build infrastructures and processes to improve energy and water management; 9) modernise water systems for agriculture; 10) enhance sustainable drinking water services; 11) apply business strategies to adapt the agricultural value chain; 12) develop infrastructure and equipment that ensure quality health services; 13) enhance and diversify to boost productivity and output in fishing and aquaculture (MINAM, 2023[137]) (see Annex 3.A for more details).

The NAP offers strategic guidance for climate change adaptation planning, implementation and monitoring, complementing the more specific objectives, measures and targets outlined in the NDCs. The government has established 82 measures for adapting to climate change, spanning five key sectors: agriculture, water, forestry, health, and fisheries and aquaculture. In 2023, 33 measures, or 41% of the total measures, were actively under implementation; 35 measures, or 43% of the total, were focused on creating the necessary conditions for action; and 16 measures, or 19% of the total, had yet to show any advancement (MINAM, 2023[137]). The country continues to implement the plan, while a framework for measuring progress is expected in 2026, which will be important in the lead-up to the 2030 deadline.

To ensure its reporting to the UNFCCC and promote effective policy design and policy implementation on climate change, Peru created the System for Monitoring Adaptation and Mitigation Measures (SIMOM). SIMOM is a set of actions, regulations and tools (MINAM, 2019[138]). MINAM, is responsible for overseeing SIMOM’s design and operation, ensuring it aligns with national laws. SIMOM comprises tools for three components: 1) evaluating climate adaptation measures; 2) tracking and verifying GHG emissions and removals; and 3) overseeing climate change financial support.

Infocarbono is one of the main tools for this. It focuses on systematically collecting and analysing data regarding GHG emissions and carbon capture (MINAM, 2014[139]). To compile this inventory, ministry-designated authorities under Infocarbono are tasked with producing annual greenhouse gas reports. Using these data, Peru has completed GHG inventories for 2000, 2005, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2019 and 2021, providing detailed emissions breakdowns by sector and primary sources. Different methodological levels are applied for the estimation of emissions in the agricultural sector according to data availability. Tier 2 was applied to the calculation of enteric fermentation and manure management of cattle, while other categories applied Tier 111 (UNFCCC, 2025[118]).

In addition to developing SIMOM, Congress has established a Special Commission on Climate Change for 2021-2026 to monitor, co‑ordinate and develop proposals for climate change mitigation and adaptation across the three levels of government (Congreso de la Republica, 2024[140]). This framework of interconnected initiatives illustrates concrete steps in generating evidence to assess progress, informing the design and implementation of measures, and ultimately contributing to positive climate change outcomes.

Peru ranks ninth worldwide in forest coverage, fourth in terms of tropical forest, and has the second-largest share of Amazonian forests (FAO, 2020[141]; SERFOR, 2021[142]). Peru’s forest coverage covers 72 million ha, spanning around 60% of the country’s territory. The Selva region, a significant part of this forested expanse, accounts for about 94.6%, or 68 million ha (Table 3.9).

The forestry sector contributes 1% of the country’s GDP (SERFOR, 2021[142]). Around 9.5 million ha of forest are permanent production forests, of which 7.2 million ha are covered by concessions for timber purposes. In 2023, sawn wood production accounted for 84.7% of total forest products, followed by charcoal (13.3%), parquet (1.7%) and laminated wood (0.2%) (INEI, 2024[28]). In 2023, Peru produced 2.2 million metric tonnes of wood and 6.2 million metric tonnes of charcoal. Mahogany and cedar are of particular interest due to their high prices in national and international markets; however, around 50% of their populations are being harvested through unsustainable practices (CBD, 2025[31]).

According to GEOBOSQUES, from 2001 to 2023, the country cleared around 3 million ha of Amazon forest, which translates into an average annual area loss of around 133 000 ha (Figure 3.22).

Deforestation accounted for 47.9% of Peru’s total GHG emissions in 2019. Regarding the aboveground carbon stored, it is estimated that primary forests concentrate 88.2%, floodable forests 9.3%, other forested lands 2.3% and plantations 0.1%12 (SERFOR, 2021[142]).

Deforestation in Peru is caused by several aspects such as agricultural expansion, road construction, and informal and illegal logging and mining. According to MapBiomas, agriculture accounts for about 80% of all forest cover loss in the last decade (MapBiomas, 2025[144]). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates a value of around 73% (FAO, European Union and CIRAD, 2022[145]). Another estimation by the OECD (OECD, 2025[146]) suggests that 75% of deforested land is converted into mixed-use agriculture combined with pastures for livestock; that said, for the period 2020-24, agriculture and livestock’s contribution to deforestation decreased (Figure 3.23).

Agricultural systems contributing to deforestation incorporate a mix of plots for crops and livestock. Conversion to croplands is most prominent along the northern Costa region of Piura and Tumbes (Figure 3.24). The expansion of larger pastures is most prevalent in the Andean regions. In the Eastern Amazon highlands, conversion of forest to mixed-use agriculture dominates, whereas in the Amazon lowlands, most forest gives way to non-vegetated areas and grasslands and wetlands. In Madre de Dios, specifically in the Tambopata area, mining is the main land-use change associated with deforestation (OECD, 2025[146]).

Furthermore, the shift from temporary crops to permanent crops can be observed, reflecting the expansion of crops such as coffee, cacao and fruit trees (FAO, European Union and CIRAD, 2022[145]). Rice production stands out as a major contributor, accounting for close to 9% of total agricultural expansion, while only 4% corresponds to all other crops (MapBiomas, 2025[144]). Most of the deforestation takes place in small plots (75%); however, it is unclear if these small sizes accurately represent the size of the producers. Poor small-scale farmers often clear forests to access more productive land, driven by inefficient or unsustainable farming practices on nutrient-poor soils and, at times, by displacement linked to insecure land rights or lack of formal titling. In areas where deforestation is most prevalent, the primary legal cash crops, especially for larger farms, are palm oil, coffee, and cocoa, which are usually exported, often through intermediaries. Illegal coca cultivation also occurs in these regions, favoured by the land suitability and remoteness (OECD, 2025[146]; FAO, European Union and CIRAD, 2022[145]). Furthermore, deforestation by units smaller than 5 ha has been decreasing over time, with a significant increase observed in units 5-50 ha large. Over the past two decades, deforestation by units greater than 50 ha has been identified as semi-industrialised or agro-industrial crops.

Over the past two decades, the illicit cultivation of coca leaf in Peru has been steadily growing again (see Chapter 1). The national cultivated area of coca production more than doubled from 40 300 ha in 2015 to 95 008 ha in 2022 (DEVIDA, 2024[147]). This can significantly contribute to deforestation, with estimations as high as 40% of national deforestation driven by coca cultivation in 2021 (DEVIDA, 2024[147]) However, land-use changes to coca cultivation are not comprehensively monitored, with findings on the impact of coca production varying widely. Furthermore, land use changes detected by satellite images may be difficult to distinguish between coca cultivation and other shrubbery-based crops such as coffee or cocoa. Expanding comprehensive monitoring of illicit coca cultivation is crucial in assessing the scope of this issue and effectively addressing it.

According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and OSINFOR, coca cultivation is found in 148 districts, primarily along the western border of the Amazon and in the Amazon highlands, as well as along the north-eastern regions bordering with Brazil and Colombia where traffickers are taking advantage of the large border (OECD, 2025[146]). The expansion of illicit coca cultivation in these regions has been linked to a rise in violence, threatening the largely Indigenous local communities.

Established in 2011 as a public body attached to MIDAGRI, SERFOR is the national forestry and wildlife authority and governing body of the National Forestry and Wildlife Management System (SINAFOR) and is the technical and regulatory authority at the national level. SERFOR is in charge of restoration goals and planning within the framework of Law 32279, the Land Use Planning Law, which establishes the Presidency of the Council of Ministers as the governing body for land use planning. As part of the decentralisation process, nine regions in the Amazon have shared powers for the granting and control of forests and wildlife. Until these transfers are completed, and in accordance with forestry legislation, SERFOR exercises these powers in 13 regions of the country.

SERFOR oversees a National Forestry and Wildlife Commission (CONAFOR), envisioned as a collaborative forum to foster tight-knit co‑ordination among SINAFOR’s stakeholders, bringing together a diverse group of professionals, government specialists, civil society representatives and Indigenous Communities. Furthermore, the legislation mandated the formation of forest and wildlife management committees, which seek to encourage local initiatives to cultivate participatory management practices to ensure that local voices and concerns are central to the management and preservation efforts. Additionally, the regulations introduced the National Forestry and Wildlife Information System (SNIFFS) as a comprehensive and integrated network, providing nationwide access to data.

The Ministry of the Environment (MINAM), created in 2008, is responsible for nationally managed protected natural areas (through SERNAP). In the case of regionally managed protected areas, regional governments are responsible for their management. In 2008, it established OSINFOR to oversee and monitor the sustainable use and conservation of forest and wildlife resources, as well as the environmental services derived from forests (Congreso de la Republica, 2008[148]).

OSINFOR regularly monitors management plans selected using a set of technical criteria. It also carries out inspections when there are signs of potential infractions of the operational requirements specified in the enabling titles. OSINFOR also uses GLAD deforestation alerts, which are detected using new Landsat satellite images in order to alert on-the-ground actors of potential deforestation as soon as possible. This helps prioritise regular supervisory patrols of forest concessions and determine fines for violations (World Resources Institute, 2019[149]).

However, OSINFOR’s supervision currently covers a limited percentage of the total hectares with enabling titles. The agency needs increased resources and more capacity to expand the coverage of its supervision moving forward. OSINFOR does not have jurisdiction over protected natural areas; instead, Law No. 26834 regulates the administration and protection of these areas (MINAM, 1997[37]).

Established under the 2011 Forestry and Wildlife Law, the National System for Forest and Wildlife Management (SINAFOR) integrates ministries, public entities, and regional and local governments, which are in charge of forest administration and supervision, alongside forest management committees to unify forest and wildlife management efforts with the private sector and civil society. SINAFOR is composed of 17 institutions, including MINAM, MIDAGRI, the Ministry of Economics and Finance, OSINFOR, Devida, the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism, the Ministry of the Interior, and the Joint Command of the Armed Forces, among others.

Despite the efforts of SINAFOR for integrating institutions involved in forest management, co‑ordination remains a challenge between the different government entities and among national and regional authorities. As seen above, MIDAGRI with SERFOR is the national forest authority; MINAI with SERNAP oversees broader environmental policy and supervises protected and conservation areas; OSINFOR monitors management plans, while regional governments administer and supervise the forest. Managing forests and curbing deforestation requires effective institutional arrangements and the enforcement of property rights and the rule of law (CEPLAN, 2023[150]; FAO, European Union and CIRAD, 2022[145]).

The lack of use rights over forest lands increases the risk of deforestation. Around 45% of deforestation accumulated between 2001 and 2024 was recorded in areas without established forestry use rights (CEPLAN, 2023[150]; FAO, European Union and CIRAD, 2022[145]; Blackman et al., 2017[151]). In contrast, only 3.5% of deforestation occurred in PNAs and 1% in titled Indigenous Communities (CEPLAN, 2023[150]; Blackman et al., 2017[151]). The 2011 Forestry and Wildlife Law and its 2015 regulations established the systematic regulation and monitoring of Peru’s forests. The law aims to foster the conservation, protection, sustainable use and enhancement of Peru’s forest and wildlife heritage (MINAGRI, 2011[17]). One key provision of the Law set forth the systematic regulation and organisation of Peruvian forests, including defining forest zones (MINAGRI, 2011[17]). The foundation of this approach is to understand how the land can be used to its fullest potential. This involves studies of the soil and forests to determine the most suitable uses for different areas of land. This process consists of five stages and is designed to clearly define activities permitted within forested and naturally vegetated areas, promoting responsible stewardship and conservation for future generations (Figure 3.25).

The law identifies four zones: 1) permanent production zones; 2) protection and ecological conservation zones; 3) needing-for-restoration zones; and 4) zones requiring special attention (SERFOR, 2015[153]). The law specifies what activities are allowed and what restrictions apply to the land, depending on its classification.

In January 2024, the new Law No. 31973 changed responsibility and appointed MIDAGRI to approve forest zoning, with proposals from SERFOR and recommendations from MINAM. This change in authority was proposed by SERFOR to strengthen its stewardship as the national forestry and wildlife authority.

As of 2023, only 20.4% of the country’s land had undergone forestry zoning (SERFOR, 2023[159]), leaving the remaining approximately 79.6%, or 102 million ha, without any zoning protection (SERFOR, 2023[159]). This lack of comprehensive zoning fosters disputes regarding land and forest resource use and heightens the risk of deforestation and environmental degradation. This is one of the key reasons given by the government for the recent legislative changes to the Forestry and Wildlife law (see Box 3.5).

Based on forest zones, the authority to grant licences still lies with the regional forestry and wildlife authorities and in places where this process has not yet been completed, SERFOR has this authority through its technical forestry and wildlife administrations. Via management plans, these enabling titles allow for the comprehensive use of resources, including the use of forest ecosystem services and other wild vegetation ecosystems. The framework for managing forest resources includes various mechanisms tailored to promote sustainable use and conservation (SERFOR, 2015[153]):

• Concessions (Decree No. 1283), issued for lands within the public domain, grant land rights for use (not ownership) and have a 40-year renewable validity period. They are designed to support a wide range of activities, including agroforestry, timber harvesting, ecotourism initiatives, conservation efforts, the collection of non-timber forest products, wildlife management practices and the development of forest plantations.

• Authorisations enable the sustainable extraction of ornamental, medicinal and certain aquatic plants.

• Forest permits are issued for commercial activities on private lands, contingent upon the approval of sustainable management plans.

• The local forests modality encourages community involvement and conservation efforts in any forest zoning area, granted through local government requests.

• Use assignments for agroforestry systems are specifically designed to support subsistence farmers, integrating agriculture and forestry to improve livelihoods and maintain ecological balance.

However, zoning is still a slow and complex process involving multiple steps and actors, often facing significant bottlenecks. As noted in Chapter 1, only a small proportion (around 25%) of farmers possess formal land titles or secure land rights. As zoning is a precondition for providing land titling and land rights, there is a need to simplify and speed up this process; digital technologies can be useful in many cases. As of March 2024, 4 016 active enabling titles had been issued, spanning more than 12.1 million ha (SERFOR, 2024[162]). Concessions represent the largest category, with 1 961 titles covering approximately 9.55 million ha, or 78.46% of the total area titled. Forest permits follow, comprising 948 titles that span around 2.45 million ha, accounting for 20.09% of the total. These two categories dominate the landscape, highlighting the significant role of concessions and permits in allocating land for sustainable use and conservation efforts. Authorisations, local forests and use assignment in agroforestry systems account for a smaller portion of the total area (Table 3.10).

Of all active concessions, 407 are designated for timber, covering 72.8% of the total area under concession in the country (SERFOR, 2024[162]). Unfortunately, the timber concession model has not proven to be as successful in terms of the use of the concession titles, and the forests were not exploited sustainably and profitably (SPDA, 2020[163]). One critical factor is the size of the concessions: they need to be substantial enough – over 30 000 ha – to justify the necessary investments and operational costs, a criterion not always achieved (SPDA, 2020[163]). While the country has put in place many initiatives to advance on categorisation of land, the forest zoning process and land titling, this is an extremely complex task, especially in balancing the need for improving the livelihoods of farm households, many of whom live in poverty or extreme poverty, while ensuring environmental protection, particularly curbing deforestation. A major challenge is to create the enabling circumstances for farmers to improve their livelihoods on their existing plots in a sustainable way while discouraging the clearing of new forest land.

In 2010, the Ministry of Environment launched the Forest Conservation Programme to protect 54 million ha of tropical forests (MINAM, 2010[164]). This initiative seeks to bolster the resilience of the forest ecosystem and support the well-being of communities dependent on these natural resources. The strategy places a special emphasis on safeguarding indigenous populations and rural farmers.

The 2021-2025 National Multisectoral Strategy against Illegal Logging was introduced (MIDAGRI, 2021[19]) to strengthen the effectiveness of regulatory measures and law enforcement. Its objectives include reducing non-compliance with regulations related to illegal logging, promoting timely information exchange among involved entities and continuously improving forestry regulations to combat illegal logging.

Peru has made substantial progress in measuring and disseminating data on national forest loss. MINAM, in co‑ordination with SERFOR, manages the GEOBOSQUES Platform, dedicated to tracking forest cover changes and providing annual data (MINAM, 2021[165]). This tool is crucial for monitoring changes in forest cover and offers detailed yearly insights. Its core mission is to map the extent of forest reserves and annually assess the diminution of Peru’s forest coverage, thus shedding light on the health and trajectory of the country’s forests.

GEOBOSQUES is embedded within the National Environmental Information System and SNIFFS frameworks. As mentioned above, SNIFFS integrates various interconnected modules and components, each designed to address specific forest and wildlife management aspects. The control module, which is under development, provides real-time, updated information to effectively oversee forest and wildlife products. The module aims to secure the integrity of these products’ supply chain, from harvest to market, ensuring compliance with legal standards.

SERFOR is obliged to regularly update the national forest inventory and ensure collaboration with local and regional government bodies (SERFOR, 2015[153]). Some progress has been made in compiling inventories that cover forests designated for sustainable use as well as ecologically vulnerable areas, now accessible for various regions across the country. Additionally, SERFOR is responsible for managing the Forest Registry, a comprehensive database that includes maps and detailed information on forest classifications, zoning, management areas, licenses and plantations, among other data (SERFOR, 2015[153]). This registry, an integral part of the SNIFFS project, is still being developed.

In 2021, SERFOR released the Strategy for the Promotion of Commercial Forest Plantations 2021‑2050, which aims to increase the production and profitability of forest plantations in Peru (SERFOR, 2021[166]). The strategy seeks to create favourable conditions for investment and enhance the production, processing and marketing of commercial plantations. As part of this policy, various financing options are being considered, including creating a fund to finance up to 50% of associated costs, designing loans with preferential terms and financial mechanisms involving state participation. Under the new Law No. 31973, permanent production forests are now approved by MIDAGRI instead of MINAM.

In 2023, the government issued comprehensive guidelines to encourage voluntary legal certification among forest and wildlife managers. These guidelines are designed to bolster the competitiveness of Peru’s forestry and wildlife sectors by providing a clear framework for obtaining incentives and benefits. Among these incentives are reduced fees for harvesting rights, state-issued recognition certificates and additional points in the scoring system for awarding timber-related forest concessions. The initiative establishes clear criteria for incentive eligibility, detailing the application and evaluation processes, serving as a model for integrating sustainable practices with economic incentives.

In addition, Peru has the Forest Zoning and Land Use Agreements for Agroforestry System (CCUSAF), which allows farmers on forest-suitable lands to formalise tenure conditional upon forest conservation and the adoption of agroforestry systems, such as shade-grown coffee or cacao (MIDAGRI, 2026[167]). This effort is reinforced by SAMI, a platform developed by SERFOR that uses Landsat and Sentinel imagery to monitor deforestation, illegal logging, and forest fires in near real time, generating early warnings for ecosystem protection. Monitoring outputs support forest oversight and enforcement by Regional Forestry and Wildlife Authorities (ARFFS), the National Police, the Public Prosecutor’s Office, and other public institutions, enabling timely interventions and the pursuit of administrative and criminal actions related to environmental crimes (MIDAGRI, 2026[167]; SERFOR, 2026[168]). These efforts aim to strengthen territorial capacities towards a modern, preventive, and evidence-based forest management model (MIDAGRI, 2026[167]).

While specific figures for direct on-farm energy consumption in kilotonnes are not readily available, the overall energy consumption in the agricultural sector is minimal compared to other sectors of the economy, approximately 1.3% of Peru’s total energy consumption in 2020 (CEIC, 2020[169]). This is attributed to the limited use of modern energy sources by the majority of farmers, producing at subsistence levels, in the country and their reliance on traditional biomass fuels.

Direct on-farm energy consumption in Peru is notably low; this is particularly the case in small-scale subsistence agriculture, due to limited access to electricity in rural areas, 15% of rural areas did not have electricity in 2022 (INEI, 2023[94]), and the predominant use of traditional biomass fuels. According to the ESMAP in 2010, only 8.5% of farms reported electricity as their main energy source. The majority of rural households rely on fuelwood (84%), animal dung (24%), and agricultural residues (11%) for cooking (ESMAP, 2010[170]).

Efforts to increase energy access and promote the use of cleaner energy sources in agriculture are ongoing, but challenges remain in achieving widespread adoption due to economic and infrastructural constraints. Peru is making significant strides towards low-carbon and energy-efficient agriculture through the integration of climate-smart practices and support for Indigenous knowledge. Other projects are related to the use of agricultural residues (e.g. from coffee, cocoa, sugarcane) for bioenergy or biogas, which can provide cleaner energy locally and reduce reliance on fossil fuels or inefficient energy sources. Solar-powered farming pilot projects in remote areas.

Law No. 32234 establishes the use of renewable energy in agriculture as a national priority, aiming to promote sustainable development, improve energy efficiency, and reduce resource consumption. The law seeks to enhance profitability, support biodiversity conservation, and foster sustainable rural development, thereby improving quality of life and socio-economic outcomes. This is especially relevant in remote areas where smallholder and family farming are the primary sources of income. It encourages the use of renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, photovoltaic, and biomass, to address energy deficits and promote prosperity in rural communities (MIDAGRI, 2025[171]).

Peru has some of the richest ecosystems and natural resource endowments in the world. It has established a comprehensive governance framework designed to manage and integrate various policies aimed at environmental conservation and sustainable agriculture. However, having the capacity to effectively implement these strategies and monitor their progress is challenging and will be key for the success of the environmental objectives set for agriculture.

Protecting Peru’s rich biodiversity and ecosystems should remain a priority. The government has made efforts in biodiversity conservation in the agricultural sector by establishing agrobiodiversity zones and biodiversity-positive economic incentives for farmers. However, deforestation continues to threaten the conservation of habitats. The conversion of forest land into agricultural land plays a particular role at the interface of biodiversity, soil health, ecosystem conservation and climate policies.

Soil degradation and desertification pose risks to Peru’s ecosystems, as well as to the agricultural sector. Climate change intensifies these effects, bringing severe economic, environmental and social costs. INIA’s extension services have started training farmers on sustainable farming and land management practices to combat soil degradation, which supports small-scale operations crucial to the country’s agricultural sector. However, the implementation of these practices remains low.

Peru is generally abundant in water resources; however, in regions such as the Costa – with intensive agricultural activity and limited water availability - effective water management presents an important opportunity to enhance productivity and sustainability. Peru has developed water management strategies and policies, that actively integrate the management of both the quantity and quality of water resources to support agriculture. However, gaps in water security persist, primarily due to ongoing challenges in inter-sectoral co-ordination and public engagement in water management, as well as the uneven participation from various water users.

Peru’s agricultural GHG emissions have increased by less than 20% since 2000 while the value of production has more than doubled over the same period, resulting in a significant improvement of the sectoral emission intensity. In addition to this, Peru has proactively engaged in global climate change mitigation initiatives and integrated those commitments into its national policies. For the agricultural sector, these include managing livestock systems and enhancing agricultural practices. As a key driver of forest loss, agriculture also has an important role to play in terms of reducing emissions from deforestation.

Levels of fertiliser application nutrient surpluses per hectare of cropland are generally lower than estimated average levels for OECD countries when using comparable metrics. Estimated levels of nutrient use efficiency suggest that there is potentially scope to further reduce surpluses by improving nutrient use efficiency.

Overall levels of pesticide application per hectare are increasing, but remain much lower than the average levels across OECD members. Despite the overall low levels of pesticide application, analyses aimed at monitoring of pesticide residues have identified instances when MRLs have been exceeded, especially for horticultural products. Continued implementation and enforcement of the existing regulations alongside increased adoption of good agricultural practices could help further decreasing the proportion of samples where pesticide residues are detected.

While the country has put in place many initiatives to advance on categorisation of land, the forest zoning process and land titling, this is an extremely complex task, especially in balancing the need for improving the livelihoods of farm households, many of whom live in poverty or extreme poverty, while ensuring environmental protection, particularly curbing deforestation. A major challenge is to create the enabling circumstances for farmers to improve their livelihoods on their existing plots in a sustainable way while discouraging the clearing of new forest land.

Efforts have been made to expand and enhance irrigation systems in Peru in order to achieve greater levels of agricultural productivity, which have led to an expansion of irrigated areas. Further water efficiency gains could be made by increasing the proportion of irrigated area under pressurised irrigation systems.

Peru is highly vulnerable to climate change risks, ranging from extreme weather events to melting glaciers. The agricultural sector is particularly vulnerable, with negative effects on crop yields, water availability and the overall stability of agricultural systems. The NAP offers strategic guidance for climate change adaptation planning, implementation and monitoring in the country, complementing the more specific objectives, measures and targets outlined in the NDCs. For agriculture, this includes adopting optimal soil management practices and diversifying crop and livestock species. Peru’s integrated framework of monitoring, mitigation and adaptation strategies has yet to prove its efficacy.

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