Insights from Skills Strategies in the European Union

Skills1 are central to the capacity of countries and people to thrive in an increasingly interconnected and rapidly changing world (OECD, 2019[1]). Megatrends such as globalisation, digital transformation – including artificial intelligence (AI) – the green transition and demographic changes like ageing populations will continue to reshape work, society and the skills people need. Countries should develop resilient and adaptable skills systems to ensure their populations have the necessary skills to thrive today and in the future.

Creating a skills system that effectively responds to these challenges requires collaboration and co‑ordination across government and with stakeholders, as well as a long-term and holistic perspective on skills policies. To this end, countries have been undertaking comprehensive and strategic assessments of the performance of their skills systems, often resulting in the development of formal National Skills Strategies (NSS). These strategies help to guide and steer strategic skills policy interventions, inform related national strategies (e.g. for education, lifelong learning, innovation, and more) and support the implementation of selected skills policies. Ultimately, skills strategies help to ensure that countries can effectively leverage human capital to drive economic growth, increase productivity, create better jobs, improve social well-being, and adapt to the green and digital transitions, thereby securing a resilient and prosperous future.

As skills strategies have become more prevalent in European Union (EU) Member States over the last decade, with national skills strategies also included as a key action in the 2020 EU Skills Agenda, a wealth of information is now available from which to draw conclusions about the factors and characteristics that result in effective skills strategies. Therefore, building on the momentum of the European Year of Skills, this study undertakes an analysis of skills strategies across EU Member States, extracting key lessons learnt from the collective European experience with skills strategies over the past decade.

The primary goal of the “National Skills Strategies across the EU: Lessons Learnt” project, which is supported by the European Commission (Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion), is to encourage more countries to adopt a strategic approach to national skills policy within EU Member States and beyond. The project aims to enhance understanding of how to effectively develop and implement skills strategies and to emphasise the importance of a strategic approach to national skills policy. This is achieved by mapping 26 existing skills strategies, extracting key lessons learnt, providing guidance for improving skills strategies and facilitating peer learning (see Figure 1.1). Detailed information about the project’s methodology can be found in Annex A.

This report supports policymakers by providing them with important insights into the key characteristics of successful skills strategies, assisting them at any stage of their policy-making process. It offers guidance on developing new skills strategies or updating existing ones.

Skills strategies are the primary strategic documents guiding the skills policy agenda within a country. Skills policy encompasses a range of policies that influence the development and utilisation of a diverse set of skills alongside the governance structures necessary to maintain effective and efficient skills systems (OECD, 2019[1]). Skills strategies can take various forms, including officially approved government strategies, white papers or reports from external organisations, such as international bodies or consultancies. They may also encompass strategies that extensively address skills-related topics, even if they are not explicitly titled as “skills strategies”, such as lifelong learning, adult education and training, education strategies, etc.

Skills strategies included in this study were selected using several criteria. To gain insight from the most recent skills strategies while ensuring a sufficiently large sample to capture cross-country variation, the study considers skills strategies published between 2014 and 2023. Moreover, as shown in Box 1.1, several additional criteria were used to select the skills strategies included in this review. These criteria encompass the requirement for a strategy that comprehensively addresses various skills topics, spans multiple policy domains, and originates from either an EU Member State or a European non-EU country, whose approach could provide valuable lessons for the European Union.

After applying these criteria, 26 skills strategies were selected in 25 countries (for Greece, 2 strategic documents were identified that met the criteria) (see Table 1.1). All are from EU Member States, except for two skills strategies from non-EU Member States: Norway and Northern Ireland (United Kingdom). In terms of timeline, 5 strategies were published between 2014 and 2016, 8 between 2017 and 2019, and 12 since 2020, indicating the growing relevance and interest in skills strategies in recent years.

Skills strategies enable countries to adopt a co-ordinated and inclusive approach to assessing skills challenges and opportunities, identifying priority areas for action, and setting strategic policy directions for the medium to long term. A co‑ordinated approach is essential because skills policy spans multiple policy domains, intersecting with education, employment, economic development, innovation, immigration and taxation. Skills policy also implicates a wide and diverse array of stakeholders both within and outside government, all of whom have an interest and role in ensuring that people develop the skills most needed in the economy and society and have opportunities to fully and effectively utilise those skills (OECD, 2020[28]). By collaborating to develop a strategy that highlights policy priorities and outlines necessary actions to enhance skills performance, countries can foster a shared understanding of how to adapt their skills systems effectively to a rapidly evolving world.

Stakeholders consulted for this project highlighted the numerous benefits of skills strategies. For instance, skills strategies have been pivotal in breaking down policy silos, fostering a collaborative approach to skills policies, and creating a shared language around skills and related policies. Indeed, the process of developing a skills strategy, which involves extensive consultations between government actors and stakeholders, is often regarded as important as the strategy itself. Furthermore, stakeholders noted that the strategy was instrumental in elevating skills as a key topic on the policy agenda, identifying priority policies, and facilitating the implementation of essential reforms. As a result, skills strategies have been proven to be instrumental in supporting the development of resilient and adaptable skills systems that allow countries to benefit from new opportunities and thrive in the world of tomorrow.

When stakeholders were asked to rate the success of the development, implementation and overall impact on a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 indicated no success or impact and 5 indicated maximum success or impact, the feedback was overwhelmingly positive (see Figure 1.2). The development of the skills strategy received the highest ratings, with 89% of countries scoring it either 4 or 5. Similarly, the implementation phase was well regarded, with a significant majority of 94% rating it either 3 or 4. While not all countries provided feedback on the impact, often because strategies were only recently developed, the available data consistently showed high ratings, with most countries scoring it either 3 or 4.

In recognition of the importance of skills strategies, the European Skills Agenda (European Commission, 2020[29]) highlights that the European Commission supports all Member States in preparing holistic, whole-of-government National Skills Strategies (Action 3 on EU support for strategic national upskilling action). Funding to support EU countries in developing these strategies has come through a variety of instruments, including the European Social Fund+, Erasmus+ and the Technical Support Instrument.

In this project, the OECD employed both desktop research and various qualitative research methods to uncover lessons learnt from the development and implementation of skills strategies across the European Union. The methodology for identifying these lessons, outlined in Annex A, comprised a questionnaire (see Annex B), in-depth interviews with government officials on selected case studies and two interactive workshops. Throughout the project, approximately 60 stakeholders were consulted. The outcome is a set of nine lessons (see Figure 1.3) that encapsulate the key features of successful skills strategies.

These lessons are intended to offer valuable guidance for policymakers. By applying these insights, policymakers can develop new skills strategies or update existing ones more effectively and efficiently. The goal is to provide practical, actionable policy advice aimed at creating robust, responsive and forward-thinking skills strategies.

The following section presents a summary of the lessons learnt. Chapter 2 elaborates on each lesson with evidence from a cross-country mapping, insights gathered from stakeholders during the project and concrete examples from various EU countries illustrating their practical application.

Skills strategies are essential for enabling countries to thrive in an increasingly interconnected and rapidly changing world. They allow countries to effectively address the skills implications of global megatrends such as digital and green transitions, globalisation, demographic change and more. The content and form of these strategies can vary significantly depending on their objectives, ranging from high-level documents that informally guide policy to detailed strategies with implementation plans that more directly influence policy.

Clearly defining strategic and operational objectives from the outset helps determine the type of skills strategy to develop. Developing and implementing skills strategies necessitate co‑ordination and collaboration among relevant government actors and stakeholders, each with distinct responsibilities and interests. To this end, an essential initial step is to establish consensus on the objectives of the strategy. Clearly defining these objectives from the outset is crucial as they significantly influence the content and format of skills strategies. This clarity facilitates a smoother and more efficient development and implementation process while also effectively managing stakeholders’ expectations regarding the tangible outputs and outcomes resulting from the strategy’s implementation. Consequently, clear objectives for skills strategies allow countries to develop and implement necessary skills reforms more effectively.

The following actions have been identified as being of particular importance:

• Setting the strategic objectives of the strategy: Strategic objectives define what skills challenges or gaps the strategy aims to address. They reflect a country’s ambitions to tackle pressing skills challenges, such as minimising skills shortages, enhancing performance in certain areas of the skills system, or addressing the specific needs of demographic groups, such as youth and women. Defining a concise set of strategic objectives enhances efficiency by realistically shaping the strategy’s scope. This approach optimises resource allocation, fosters stakeholder alignment, and enhances accountability in achieving measurable outcomes. Clear strategic objectives serve as a guiding framework, enabling continuous adaptation and refinement of the skills strategy in response to evolving economic and societal needs.

• Setting the operational objectives of the strategy: Operational objectives delineate how the strategy will be implemented to achieve the strategic objectives. In practical terms, setting operational objectives involves choosing whether the strategy will primarily influence policy making and skills outcomes indirectly – such as by enhancing awareness of skills issues and fostering stakeholder commitment to policy reforms – or directly, such as by implementing comprehensive policy reforms or launching targeted initiatives to address skills gaps. This strategic decision not only shapes the content and focus of skills strategies (e.g. a high-level format or a detailed format with an implementation plan) but also determines the level of investment and institutional capacity required for effective implementation.

Timing is crucial for a skills strategy’s success since changes in government and policy priorities can affect the implementation and longevity of a strategy. For instance, careful planning of the timing for launching a skills strategy is crucial, as finding an opportune moment can enable governments to implement reforms more efficiently, leading to quicker and more effective improvements in skills outcomes. In a dynamic and unpredictable political landscape, the optimal window of opportunity arises when three conditions converge: 1) there is high public attention to the problem; 2) feasible policy solutions are available and can be identified; and 3) policymakers are motivated to implement the policy solution.

In recent years, there has been a growing awareness among policymakers and the public about the pivotal role of skills in advancing national development and improving individuals’ well-being and socio-economic outcomes. The development of relevant skills, effective utilisation of skills and establishment of mechanisms for governing skills policies have emerged as pressing issues, if not always priorities, on policymakers’ agendas. Countries can capitalise on this momentum by launching a skills strategy at opportune moments that offer increased visibility and allow ample time for its development and the implementation of all planned policy actions while minimising political opposition.

The following actions have been identified as being of particular importance:

• Determining the optimal time to launch a skills strategy: Aligning the strategy with an electoral mandate or an anticipated change in mandates can help increase the likelihood of it being developed and adopted while reducing the risk of it being side-lined by shifting political agendas. This proactive approach helps ensure completion and continuity and enhances a strategy’s effectiveness in addressing pressing skills challenges. Moreover, launching a strategy in conjunction with high-profile events or funding opportunities amplifies its visibility, stakeholder support and feasibility, thereby bolstering its impact. Given that strategies sometimes need to be developed in less-than-ideal circumstances, such as amidst political uncertainty, remaining flexible is paramount. Ultimately, strategic timing helps ensure that skills strategies are not only well-prepared but also well-positioned to achieve lasting and impactful outcomes in enhancing skills systems. By carefully considering the optimal timing for launch, countries can maximise the effectiveness and sustainability of their skills policy reforms.

• Determining the timeframe required to develop a strategy: The duration of strategy development varies based on the complexity of policy reforms, political contexts and the availability of funding. Countries aiming for comprehensive skills strategies must allocate sufficient time to engage stakeholders, conduct thorough assessments and outline detailed implementation plans. Strategic planning and co-ordination across governmental levels are essential to ensure alignment and secure necessary resources. Furthermore, leveraging external expertise and funding can enhance a strategy’s effectiveness, albeit requiring careful management of additional time and resources. Ultimately, a well-timed and meticulously planned skills strategy not only addresses immediate challenges but also lays a robust foundation for long-term skills development and national prosperity.

Skills strategies are often developed upon the foundation of previous skills strategies or similar skills-related strategies, such as education or adult learning strategies. When renewing skills strategies, some countries have expanded the scope of previous, more narrowly focused strategies that concentrated on specific stages of learning, such as education or adult learning. Whether based on prior skills strategies or education strategies, updated strategies should build upon the lessons learnt from their predecessors.

Skills strategies also often coexist with other government strategies that impact skills development and utilisation, such as employment and immigration strategies, or that require skills development to advance their objectives, such as job creation, industrial, and economic growth strategies, as well as initiatives and strategies of the European Union. In such cases, care must be taken to ensure that policy measures across these strategies are aligned and mutually reinforcing. Aligning these strategies can minimise overlap and ensure efficient resource allocation.

The following actions have been identified as being of particular importance:

• Building on previous strategies: Skills strategies should build on the achievements of preceding strategies, including similar skills-related strategies, such as education or adult learning strategies, and address challenges that previous initiatives overlooked or left unaddressed. By drawing on insights and lessons learnt from these strategies and their preceding versions, countries can maintain continuity and momentum in pursuit of national goals amidst evolving economic, social and environmental conditions. Countries can enhance the effectiveness of their strategies by implementing robust monitoring and evaluation systems to track long-term progress. Furthermore, the establishment of dedicated oversight and co‑ordination mechanisms can ensure that the renewal process supports policy continuity across time and electoral cycles.

• Aligning with strategies in other policy areas: Skills strategies need to be aligned with concurrent strategies in other policy areas to ensure their collective contribution to national development and other overarching goals. This alignment minimises duplication and fosters synergies that increase efficiency and optimise the use of limited public resources. In practice, many EU countries already achieve cross-sectoral alignment by systematically reviewing strategies from other related sectors to identify and integrate relevant skills-related policies and measures. Additionally, they establish robust co-ordination mechanisms across the whole of government to facilitate coherent implementation.

• Aligning with EU initiatives: Alignment with EU-level initiatives and strategies ensures that countries adhere to supranational priorities and fulfil their EU commitments through their skills strategies. Aligning skills strategies with EU-level commitments also allows countries to benchmark themselves against other EU countries, assess their strengths and weaknesses, and actively engage in peer-learning opportunities. This alignment often requires countries to standardise their definitions of different skills terminologies to generate internationally comparable data and report regularly to EU-level institutions (e.g. Eurostat) regarding progress on key skills indicators.

A key function of skills strategies is to establish priorities and outline the relevant policy actions. The broad scope of these strategies is often shaped by the strategic objectives of the skills strategy and the need for alignment with other government strategies. However, an evidence-based assessment of the skills system is crucial to narrow the list of potential areas for action to a manageable list of priorities. By ensuring that the topics in the strategy are well informed by evidence, countries can allocate limited resources more effectively towards the most pressing skills challenges, thereby optimising the impact.

An evidence-based approach also fosters broad support by presenting an impartial view of the skills system’s performance. This is important since the prioritisation of challenges can be complex due to conflicting interests among government ministries, agencies and stakeholders, which also underscores the need for interministerial collaboration and stakeholder engagement. Ensuring skills priorities are grounded in evidence makes it easier to achieve consensus on the priorities and policy actions to be outlined in the skills strategy.

The following actions have been identified as being of particular importance:

• Making an evidence-based assessment of the performance of skills systems: Most EU countries build their skills strategies on thorough assessments of the performance of their skills systems. Ideally, these assessments are comprehensive, capturing a broad range of topics related to the skills system, using a mix of qualitative and quantitative methodologies. It should utilise accessible and timely data, leveraging advanced technologies such as AI, machine learning and big data analytics for deeper insights and more precise skills forecasts. Often, an external organisation supports the country with the assessment, providing an impartial and neutral perspective on skills priorities and, in this way, fostering buy-in among stakeholders.

• Using evidence to establish the scope of the strategy: Evidence-based assessments of the performance of skills systems play a pivotal role in shaping the scope of skills strategies, influencing which aspects of skills development and utilisation are prioritised. This assessment informs decisions on whether to include policies related to initial education, VET, adult learning and skills utilisation, and aspects of the governance of skills systems, among others. It ensures that strategies are tailored to address critical skills gaps and opportunities, guiding the focus towards areas where interventions can have the most significant impact on enhancing skills development and utilisation, as well as governance effectiveness.

To ensure broad commitment to a skills strategy, countries should designate champions who can build support and maintain momentum by facilitating consensus and mobilising action among government officials and stakeholders. Champions help to align the interests of diverse ministerial portfolios and stakeholders toward joint and co-ordinated action. By raising awareness of the collective benefits, champions foster commitment to a coherent and shared skills strategy. Additionally, these champions may play a role in initiating, supporting and securing the necessary legislative approvals and funding for the strategy’s development.

Champions are also vital for sustaining commitment to implementing a skills strategy, given the complexity and the long-term nature of skills policy. Skills policy measures often require significant time to implement and demonstrate results, posing the risk of losing momentum and support. A champion with influence can effectively communicate the strategic advantages of long-term planning, ensuring ongoing support and momentum for the strategy’s implementation. By guiding the strategy through consensus building and long-term advocacy, champions play a pivotal role in shaping effective skills policies that meet evolving societal and economic needs.

The following actions have been identified as being of particular importance:

• Finding a champion within government: To secure support for developing a skills strategy and maintaining a commitment to its implementation, it is helpful to find a champion for the skills strategy within the government. The champion should have the stature and influence to engage and lead both senior officials and stakeholders. While there is no one-size-fits-all approach to identifying an appropriate champion, it is common for champions to come from the ministries leading the development of skills strategies or that initiated the skills strategy since they are familiar with the policy and have access to most of the stakeholders involved. Often, champions are ministers with skills-relevant portfolios, such as education, employment, and economic affairs, or their deputies. The role of the champion is frequently shared by senior officials within these portfolios, ensuring comprehensive and influential leadership.

• Finding a champion outside government: To safeguard the continuity of the skills strategy amid political changes, it is advantageous to find a champion from outside the government as well. By securing a non-political champion, the skills strategy is better positioned to maintain relevance in the face of expected or unexpected shifts in government or government priorities. An external champion can also collaborate with a governmental counterpart, thereby enhancing their combined influence and effectiveness in championing the strategy.

Developing a coherent skills strategy requires co-ordination and collaboration among various government ministries and agencies responsible for skills policy. Within the government, skills policy spans multiple ministerial portfolios, including education, employment and economic development. Skills policy also concerns different levels of government, from local to central, representing a vertical division of responsibilities.

Engaging different parts and levels of government and co-ordinating their views to deliver a cohesive skills strategy can be challenging. It involves managing diverse and potentially conflicting interests and perspectives while ensuring that skills policy remains a priority amidst other pressing issues. Effective co‑ordination is essential to balance these interests and create a unified approach that addresses the needs and perspectives of all stakeholders involved.

The following actions have been identified as being of particular importance:

• Establishing mechanisms for collaboration at the national level: Countries should involve all ministries and agencies with key responsibilities for skills policy in the development of skills strategies, ensuring equitable participation among these ministries and incorporating their perspectives into the policy processes. Achieving this aim requires the establishment of effective mechanisms for promoting effective co‑ordination and collaboration. The number and level of involvement of government ministries and agencies play a significant role in determining the appropriate co-ordination methods. While less formal approaches, such as workshops and surveys, are common, there is generally a need for more formal mechanisms to institutionalise commitment and provide structured decision-making processes. Formal mechanisms, such as formal skills bodies or councils, interministerial project teams, and parliamentary approval, can further reinforce accountability and alignment with national priorities, ensuring a holistic and well-co‑ordinated approach to skills development.

• Establishing mechanisms for collaboration with regional and local levels: Establishing mechanisms for collaboration with regional and local levels in the development of skills strategies presents unique challenges and requires balancing the involvement of central and regional actors. Informal engagement methods such as workshops and surveys play a key role in integrating local perspectives and raising awareness of skills strategies. Formal mechanisms, like interministerial project teams or formal skills bodies or councils with local and regional representatives, can further institutionalise collaboration, ensuring sustained engagement and coherent policy outcomes that reflect regional needs and priorities. Ultimately, a careful approach that balances regional, local and central perspectives can achieve policy coherence and effective implementation across all levels of government.

Many different groups of stakeholders have an interest and role in ensuring that people develop the right skills and use them effectively. As a result, they have an important role to play in developing and implementing skills strategies. During the development of a skills strategy, stakeholders can provide practical insights into the key skills challenges facing countries and identify opportunities for improvement. Their proximity to the practical aspects of policy implementation also gives policymakers very valuable insights into “what works and what does not”. Additionally, stakeholders can serve as important champions for policy reform and the overall strategy. They can also be important partners in the implementation of strategies, such as by raising awareness of the policies available to learners or by directly delivering counselling and training programmes.

However, engaging stakeholders can be challenging. Building mutual trust between government and stakeholders is a lengthy process deeply rooted in historical contexts and requires ongoing institutional efforts to build and maintain trust. Additionally, stakeholder engagement demands significant time and resources, from identifying relevant stakeholders to facilitating their engagement, resolving conflicts, managing power imbalances, and mitigating the risk of undue influence by special interests.

The following actions have been identified as being of particular importance:

• Designing appropriate mechanisms for stakeholder engagement: Engaging stakeholders meaningfully through various mechanisms is crucial for effective skills strategy development. Skills strategies that offer tangible opportunities for change rather than generic solutions tend to garner greater stakeholder interest and support. Meaningful engagement requires policymakers to genuinely consider stakeholder perspectives and incorporate them into decision-making processes, fostering constructive problem-solving environments. Utilising a mix of informal mechanisms, such as workshops and virtual consultations, alongside formalised stakeholder forums ensures diverse viewpoints are heard, enhancing policy relevance and social legitimacy. Establishing ongoing mechanisms for stakeholder involvement beyond strategy development is essential for sustaining dialogue and improving skills policies over time.

• Fostering the engagement of a diverse range of stakeholders: Engaging a diverse range of stakeholders is essential for developing inclusive and effective skills strategies. This ensures the consideration of a broad spectrum of perspectives, including employers, trade unions, education providers and civil society organisations, thereby enhancing the strategy’s legitimacy and relevance. While certain stakeholders, such as employers’ organisations and trade unions, are consistently engaged, it is crucial to systematically include perspectives from education and training providers, especially those with regional competencies in skills policy. Moreover, special attention should be given to traditionally under-represented groups, such as SMEs and civil society organisations. These groups can offer unique insights into skills needs and barriers to learning and employment, enriching the policy-making process. The form and level of stakeholder engagement are influenced by countries’ established traditions of policy making, but effective engagement methods exist within all traditions.

A clear approach to implementation is crucial to the success of a skills strategy. This involves defining how governments will translate their objectives into achievable policy actions. For example, if a country aims to address specific skills challenges, such as skills shortages, through the implementation of specific policy actions, then a formal implementation plan can help by assigning clear responsibilities to actors and stakeholders, identifying funding sources and timelines, establishing monitoring and reporting guidelines, and setting implementation targets. By agreeing on such implementation details with relevant government actors and stakeholders from the outset, countries can more easily streamline the operationalisation of their skills strategies, deliver concrete policy actions and ensure efficiency.

It is important to carefully consider the selection of an implementation approach to ensure that it aligns well with both the strategic and operational objectives of the strategy. Many strategies fail to achieve their objectives – or worse, are unused – because policymakers do not adequately plan for implementation. A poorly designed implementation approach can result in poor alignment between responsible government actors and stakeholders, inadequate institutional capacity and insufficient allocation of time and resources for executing the strategy’s policy actions. Ineffective implementation of skills strategy can result in suboptimal skills outcomes and, ultimately, waste public resources and erode public trust in governments’ effectiveness.

The following actions have been identified as being of particular importance:

• Developing a formal implementation plan: Whether in a separate document or integrated within the strategy itself, a formal implementation plan can support the achievement of a skills strategy’s objectives. Such a plan is especially important when the objective is to introduce specific skills policy reforms. A well-designed implementation plan clearly delineates roles and responsibilities for all involved partners, identifies the human and financial resources needed and their respective sources, establishes precise timelines for implementation, and outlines mechanisms to monitor policy outcomes and make necessary adjustments. When deciding whether to develop a formal implementation plan, it is important to consider the time and resources required to identify these implementation details.

• Incorporating flexibility into the implementation plan: The implementation plan for the skills strategy must remain flexible to ensure its continued relevance in the context of evolving trends affecting skills needs, such as the digital and green transitions, population ageing, migration trends, and unexpected shocks such as the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, and changes in government that can have an impact on skills policy priorities. Establishing robust monitoring mechanisms is crucial to facilitate timely updates and ensure these strategies can effectively address changes in economic and social landscapes. While some countries design strategies with shorter-term implementation cycles to ensure their regular review and update, others with longer-term implementation cycles may need to incorporate mechanisms and strategies such as regularly scheduled review periods to ensure their continued relevance.

• Maximising the strategy’s impact in the absence of an implementation plan: Countries may choose not to develop a formal implementation plan for a number of reasons, such as constraints in time and resources or a perceived lack of necessity. Skills strategies can yield several benefits even in the absence of a formal and detailed implementation plan, including establishing a shared skills agenda, promoting accountability among all involved parties and identifying specific skills policy gaps. However, the absence of a formal implementation plan can present challenges such as unclear accountability and confusion over responsibilities, timelines and funding. To mitigate these potential challenges, countries could consider establishing official oversight bodies and formalising their partnerships.

Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are crucial for sustaining momentum in skills strategy implementation and ensuring the ongoing effectiveness of policy actions. Skills strategies in the countries studies often span up to 14 years, during which economic, social and environmental contexts can evolve, reshaping skills requirements and shifting policy priorities. Without robust monitoring and evaluation, there is a risk that government ministries, agencies and other stakeholders may lose interest and commitment to implementing the strategy’s actions. These mechanisms play a vital role in holding government and stakeholders accountable, fostering progress in strategy implementation and enabling timely adjustments as needed to align with changing circumstances. Additionally, monitoring and evaluation ensure that actions remain aligned with the strategy’s objectives, thereby maintaining their relevance and impact over time.

Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms can also facilitate learning from experiences, allowing policymakers to refine and/or adapt strategies based on real-world feedback and outcomes. By systematically tracking progress and assessing outcomes, policymakers gain valuable insights into the effectiveness of their strategies and the impact on the skills system. This process enables them to identify successes, challenges and areas for improvement. With this knowledge, policymakers can refine strategies, adjust priorities and allocate resources more effectively to address evolving needs and emerging opportunities.

The following actions have been identified as being of particular importance:

• Selecting the right monitoring and evaluation mechanisms: Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are crucial for assessing the effectiveness of skills strategies, and countries should select the right mix of quantitative and qualitative methods. Informed by institutional legacies, specific national contexts, and the chosen implementation approach, countries should ensure these mechanisms are tailored to their unique circumstances. Quantitative methods, such as key performance indicators, provide measurable data on progress, while qualitative methods, like surveys and case studies, offer detailed insights into the strategies’ impact. Additionally, oversight bodies play a vital role in maintaining a strategy’s effectiveness and relevance over time by regularly reviewing progress and holding implementers accountable. These combined efforts help ensure that skills strategies remain adaptive and aligned with evolving policy needs.

• Allocating adequate resources for monitoring and evaluation: Allocating adequate human, financial, and institutional resources is essential for effective monitoring and evaluation of skills strategies. This ensures effective oversight of implementation progress, keeping strategies responsive to emerging challenges and opportunities. Securing ample financial resources and investing in skilled professionals, continuous training, and stakeholder engagement management are all important, since they will help to enhance evaluation accuracy and support comprehensive data collection, analysis, and the use of advanced tools for efficient monitoring and evaluation. Establishing dedicated units for monitoring and evaluation within organisations, as well developing clear frameworks and an accountable institutional culture further strengthens the capacity to drive systematic and impactful evaluations of skills strategies.

Building on the momentum of the EU Skills Agenda and the European Year of Skills, this study analyses 26 skills strategies developed across the European Union and beyond, aiming to extract key lessons from the collective European experience over the past decade. It represents the first comprehensive attempt to map characteristics of skills strategies and assess the lessons learnt from countries’ experiences in developing and implementing these strategies. The goal is to enhance understanding of skills strategies and offer practical guidance to policymakers involved in developing new strategies or updating existing ones.

An important aspect of the study is defining National Skills Strategies, which are broadly characterised as the primary strategic documents shaping a country’s skills policy agenda. The analysis highlights that these strategies are diverse, varying significantly in their objectives, scope, format and implementation approaches across different countries. Clear criteria were established for this project to determine which strategies qualified as National Skills Strategies (see Box 1.1).

It is important to acknowledge that even with well-defined criteria, a wide variety of strategic documents can meet these standards. Some strategies qualify even without being explicitly referred to as a “skills strategy”. Additionally, identifying the “leading strategic document” can be challenging, especially when various ministries or agencies each promote their own strategies that heavily feature elements of skills policy, such as education and employment strategies.

It is also important to recognise that the understanding of the term “skills” can vary significantly across different countries. The concept of “skills” does not always translate universally across languages and cultures. In some instances, it may be narrowly construed, focusing primarily on technical and professional skills needed for specific tasks and occupations. In such cases, skills strategies may emphasise VET over other forms of learning. Ideally, a comprehensive skills strategy should encompass all levels of formal education, as well as non-formal and informal learning opportunities. This inclusive approach ensures that a broad spectrum of skills and learning experiences are considered and addressed within a strategy.

Countries that develop skills strategies report numerous key benefits. In addition to breaking down policy silos, fostering a collaborative approach to skills policies, and creating a shared language for skills policy, strategies also have been instrumental in elevating skills as a key topic on the policy agenda, identifying priority policies, and facilitating the implementation of essential reforms. Consulted stakeholders involved in developing and implementing skills strategies expressed unequivocal support for these strategies. However, their experiences also revealed key characteristics that can ensure successful development and implementation, thereby enhancing the overall impact of the strategic document on skills policy. The nine lessons identified for this project capture these essential characteristics for success.

Developing and implementing a skills strategy is a multifaceted process that requires careful planning and consideration. The journey begins with establishing a clear objective for the strategy (Lesson 1). Defining specific goals provides a sense of direction and focus, which is crucial for aligning efforts and resources effectively. The timing of launching the strategy is equally important (Lesson 2). Identifying the right window of opportunity, such as seizing moments when there is political will and stability or when there are important funding opportunities, can significantly enhance the strategy’s impact.

Furthermore, it is essential that the skills strategy aligns with other key government strategies (Lesson 3). This alignment fosters coherence and leverages synergies across various policies, ensuring a co-ordinated approach to development. To craft a robust strategy, it must be informed by an evidence-based assessment of the current skills system (Lesson 4). Comprehensive data and analysis are vital in assessing what skills issues the strategy should address.

Securing long-term support and maintaining momentum requires finding champions who can advocate for the strategy (Lesson 5). These influential leaders play a crucial role in gaining and sustaining a mandate for the strategy. Moreover, a whole-of-government approach is necessary to promote collaboration across different departments and agencies (Lesson 6). This co-ordinated effort ensures cohesive implementation and maximises the strategy’s effectiveness. Engaging with stakeholders is another critical aspect (Lesson 7). Involving businesses, educational institutions, and other relevant parties in the development process brings invaluable insights and builds commitment to the strategy. Once developed, the strategy must also be supported by an implementation approach that is well-aligned with its objectives (Lesson 8). This plan should outline clear steps, responsibilities and timelines. Monitoring and evaluating the implementation process is crucial for ensuring the strategy’s effectiveness (Lesson 9). Continuous assessment helps identify areas for improvement and ensures that the strategy remains on track.

By following these principles, a skills strategy can be effectively developed and implemented, leading to sustained benefits for the workforce and the broader economy.

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[26] OECD (2017), OECD Skills Strategy Diagnostic Report: Slovenia 2017, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264287709-en.

[19] OECD (2017), OECD Skills Strategy Diagnostic Report: The Netherlands 2017, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264287655-en.

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[27] OECD (2015), OECD Skills Strategy Diagnostic Report: Spain 2015, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264300262-en.

[2] OECD (2014), OECD Skills Strategy Diagnostic Report: Austria 2014, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264300255-en.