The mental health of the population, including children and young people, is influenced by a range of factors. These factors include finances, socio-economic status, social relationships, family and school environment, genetics, physical activity, diet, and sleep, among others. Some of these dimensions strengthen mental health and well-being, while others leave individuals at greater risk of poor mental health and mental disorders. In recent years, significant social, economic, political and environmental shocks have taken a toll on population mental health (OECD, 2023[8]; 2023[9]). Many of these shocks have had a detrimental impact on population mental health, and in some instances, children and young people have been particularly vulnerable:
The COVID‑19 pandemic exacerbated mental health issues through social isolation, economic instability, and job precarity, leading to increased rates of depression and anxiety across Europe (OECD, 2021[10]; Leung et al., 2022[11]). Where data were available, they showed that young people’s mental health declined precipitously during the pandemic period, as young people were significantly more likely to be affected by school and university closures, social isolation, and fear and hopelessness (OECD/European Union, 2022[5]). Young people with pre‑existing and severe mental health issues reported a worsening of their symptoms during the pandemic (ibid).
The climate crisis has contributed to stress, trauma, and climate anxiety, particularly among young people, due to the increase in extreme weather events and climate migration. A 2021 survey of 10 000 adolescents and young adults aged 16 to 25 years from ten countries1 worldwide found that almost 60% of the respondents felt “very” or “extremely” worried about climate change and more than 45% said their feelings about climate change negatively affected their daily lives (Hickman et al., 2021[12]). Climate distress was correlated with perceived inadequate government response and associated feelings of betrayal (ibid).
War and conflict have led to heightened rates of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety in regions directly engaged in war or conflict as well as beyond, with long-term intergenerational effects (Kalaitzaki et al., 2024[13]). Young people directly affected by Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine have experienced significant disruptions in their lives and education, and some have experienced loss and bereavement. Research has pointed to high rates of mental distress including anxiety, depression, stress and trauma-related symptoms amongst Ukrainians who have taken refuge in neighbouring countries, and indicates that children and young people may be particularly vulnerable to mental health problems (Vintilă et al., 2023[14]).
Finally, excessive use of social media has generally been linked to increased anxiety and depression, potentially related to increased exposure to cyber-bullying and sleep deprivation, although evidence on causal pathways is not yet considered to be conclusive (Fassi et al., 2024[15]). The relationship between social media and mental health is however complex and bidirectional, and varies by pattern and amount of social media use as well as by population (Mader et al., 2025[16]). Some current evidence points to the benefits of moderate use of digital technologies, but some harms are associated with “excessive use” or “overuse” (usually defined as daily usage of four hours or more) (OECD, 2024[17]). There are signs that problematic use of social media is growing. In Europe, central Asia and Canada, the proportion of children and adolescents with problematic use of social media, characterised by addictive‑like symptoms, has increased by +50%, from 7% to 11% between 2018 and 2022 (Boniel-Nissim et al., 2024[18]).
Conversely, stable family relationships, supportive social environments, improved physical health, and access to mental health services contribute to foster positive mental health. All aspects of family cohesion are associated with mental health, with positive relationships boosting mental health and negative relationships undermining it (Marth et al., 2022[19]). More broadly, positive social networks and interactions contribute to enhanced feelings of security and self-esteem among younger people (Zhou and Cheng, 2022[20]).