OECD Review of Fisheries 2025

Gender equality and equity1 are fundamental human rights that contribute positively to the economy (OECD, 2024[1]). Promoting women’s engagement in the economy fosters economic empowerment and enhances equality spurring economic growth, productivity and overall development (IMF, 2018[2]). Ending gender inequality can also promote the sustainability of economies and can accelerate action on climate, environmental protection and conservation (Deininger et al., 2023[3]; OECD, 2021[4]). Evidence suggests that closing gaps in labour force participation could boost the gross domestic product of OECD Members by 9.2% by 2060, which is equivalent to adding approximately 0.23 percentage points to average annual growth (OECD, 2023[5]). Studies of women’s participation in agriculture have also shown that it can increase an industry’s technical efficiency, meaning the effectiveness of inputs to produce outputs is maximised (Bozoğlu and Ceyhan, 2007[6]; Aung et al., 2021[7]; Sell et al., 2018[8]; Seymour, 2017[9]). Reaching gender equality is thus not just a moral imperative, but a key endeavour to move towards better socio-economic and environmental outcomes for all.

Accordingly, gender equality and equity are key international and horizontal policy objectives (Box 8.1). However, despite the increasing international attention, gender inequality continues to remain an issue throughout the world, as women continue to face persistent and long-standing barriers and systemic disadvantages in most domains of social and economic life (OECD, 2024[1]; OECD, 2023[10]).

This chapter builds on discussion held during a thematic session of the OECD Fisheries Committee on gender issues in fisheries and aquaculture organised in May 2024. These discussions highlighted that new research was needed to better understand gender issues in fisheries and aquaculture in the OECD Members to complement existing research, which focuses on developing country case studies and help understand how solutions can be transferred to different contexts. The OECD Fisheries Committee has thus committed to hold regular discussion of gender issues in its plenary meetings, covering policy options that promote gender equality in fisheries and aquaculture to achieve biological, economic and social sustainability in the sector. What follows summarises what was learned in the process of documenting issues for that discussion and from the discussions themselves.

When information was available for the 41 countries and territories covered in this report, women represented 37% of total workers in commercial fishing, 39% in aquaculture and 51% in processing (Figure 8.1). However, these statistics should be viewed with caution, as disaggregated data are missing in many cases.2

The lack of disaggregated data is underlined in much of the literature, spanning both academic research and publications from international organisations (Elias et al., 2024[20]; Giakoumi et al., 2021[21]; Lu and Zou, 2023[22]) and is often cited as a barrier to better understanding fisheries and aquaculture through a gender lens (Elias et al., 2024[20]; Lu and Zou, 2023[22]; Kleiber, Harris and Vincent, 2014[23]; FAO, 2024[24]). Further, disaggregated data are even scarcer in small-scale fisheries than in industrial sectors (FAO; Duke University; WorldFish, 2023[25]). At the level of the OECD Members, equivalent statistics show that females make up 20% of the workers in aquaculture, 12% in fisheries and 51% in processing, although data issues remain a problem.3

Aggregate employment numbers mask further inequality in access to jobs and incomes for women in the sector. One key issue is the tendency for women to be over-represented in lower skilled and lower paid roles. This disparity reflects broader patterns of gender inequality and highlights the need for targeted efforts to address these imbalances (Syddall and Grant, 2023[26]; Mangubhai et al., 2022[27]; Elias et al., 2024[20]).

On the other hand, it is believed that female representation in the fisheries and aquaculture sector is underestimated in official statistics as they are often disproportionally engaged in the informal sector (UN Women, 2018[28]; FAO, 2022[29]). For example, it is estimated that women make up about half of the workforce in the value chain of the small-scale fisheries sector (UN Women, 2018[28]; FAO, 2022[29]). For the most part, women are said to be particularly present in pre-harvest activities such as net-mending (FAO, 2022[29]; FAO, 2024[24]) and post-harvest activities such as processing and subsistence activities (Merayo, Vakhitova and Carlson, 2024[30]). This work is generally unpaid or informal and often not considered to be work but the domestic role of women.

Further, the degree to which women are involved in the fishing and aquaculture sectors varies depending on the region and socio-cultural context (UN Women, 2018[28]; FAO, 2022[29]). As in other sectors, the dynamics of women’s involvement can be influenced by factors such as access to resources, cultural norms and economic opportunity (Njuki et al., 2022[31]). Women also play a larger role in specific subsections of the sector. For example, reports indicate that in some regions, women often bear sole responsibility for aquaculture production due to male migration to urban areas, a pattern notably observed in some regions of Thailand and the People’s Republic of China (Kusakabe, 2003[32]). Further, women have been recognised as crucial contributors in emerging sectors such as the production of seaweed, where they currently make up more than half of the workforce in both production and processing in some countries. This has made the seaweed industry an important source of livelihoods for many women. A recent report by UNCTAD (UNCTAD, 2024[33]) recognised the seaweed sector as having many promising opportunities for women’s participation.

Women also play a key role in research (Merayo, Vakhitova and Carlson, 2024[30]). In fact, it is estimated that the gender gap in ocean science where women would comprise 38% of the field is smaller than the overall gender gap in science (OECD, 2021[4]). A study looking at women’s participation in the ocean sciences in the European Union found that there is a relative gender balance in the early career path (PhD students and graduates); however, this gap widens in senior positions, where the proportion of female directors in marine laboratories was as low as 24% (Giakoumi et al., 2021[21]).

A number of publications report that women play an increasingly important role in ocean governance and management in various capacities, including decision making; however, overall statistics are not available for these roles (Gissi, Portman and Hornidge, 2018[34]; DFAT, 2022[35]). As society shifts and as fisheries and aquaculture policy and management become more complex, women are increasingly part of the human dimensions of these systems and are continuing to be integrated in a way that has not always been visible in the past (Calhoun, Conway and Russell, 2016[36]). This is crucial as governance regimes need to be socially inclusive to be effective and sustainable, which includes involving women in ocean governance (Gissi, Portman and Hornidge, 2018[34]; DFAT, 2022[35]).

Finally, beyond employment statistics, adopting a gender lens for analysis is changing the perceptions around women’s contribution to the sector, highlighting their important roles in decision making, management and marketing, along with the multidirectional impact of their participation (Williams, 2008[37]) (Williams, 2008[37]; FAO, 2012[38])).4 For example, women’s participation in production has been found to positively impact both the physical and emotional well-being of fishing communities and their participation efforts have also found to not only contribute to environmental conservation but also strengthen community bonds and resilience to external challenges (Szaboova, Gustavsson and Turner, 2022[39]) . Another example from Oregon, United States, shows how women, often the wives of fishermen, are increasingly participating and taking more active roles at fisheries management meetings, often acting as the “ear” and “voice” while their husbands are at sea (Calhoun, Conway and Russell, 2016[36]).

Women’s participation in fisheries and aquaculture has also been found to increase technical efficiency. For example, a study of small-scale aquaculture in Myanmar found that women’s participation in decision making was correlated with improved technical efficiency (Aung et al., 2021[7]). Likewise, a study in Cambodia found that, in general, aquaculture ponds managed by women tended to generate higher yields (Kusakabe, 2003[32]).

Shedding light on women’s participation in fisheries may even have implications for fisheries science and marine conservation. An analysis of 106 case studies of small-scale fisheries found that there is a quantitative data gap in the characterisation of gender of small-scale fisheries. Reasons for this may include such factors as limiting the definition of “fishers” and “fishing” when collecting data, where women in some instances may practice fishing activities for the home or as a supplementary income activity. It also found that qualitative data by gender (such as catch) was not recorded, or even included in data sets. This suggested that when data are not disaggregated by gender, a full picture of the fishery cannot be obtained, potentially leading to an underestimation of catch and diversity of species caught, restricting both social and ecological understanding of fisheries (Kleiber, Harris and Vincent, 2014[23]).

Women often face gender-based constraints and barriers to participation, which require gender-specific solutions (FAO, 2024[24]). The root cause of constraints and barriers for women lies in gender inequality, stemming from gender bias and entrenched social norms. These norms are intertwined with various intersecting dimensions of society, including class, age, ethnicity, religion and others. The compounding effect of these intersecting factors exacerbates inequalities (Shang, 2022[40]; FAO, 2022[29]).

More specifically, barriers to women participating in fishing and aquaculture activities can manifest as prejudices favouring men, such as when handing down family fishing businesses, a real and perceived hostile environment for women in parts of the sector, and incompatibility of fishing employment with the domestic unpaid labour expected of women in some societies (Giner, Hobeika and Fischetti, 2022[41]). Additionally, 45% of the global population believes that men should have priority for employment opportunities over women, which further reduces women’s employment in the industry, particularly as many fisheries sector jobs are located in areas with relatively high unemployment (WVS, 2022[42]).

Even for the women who do participate in the sector, barriers exist that limit their earnings and opportunities to grow their businesses. For example, in most small-scale fisheries, men typically own the boats and fishing gear necessary to catch commercial species. This ownership often gives men control over household income and, as a result, access to special initiatives where ownership is a requirement, such as subsidies and fishing co-operatives (Uc-Espadas et al., 2018[43]). As a result, women are often prevented from receiving benefits such as government payments to fishers, fair pay, the ability to take decisions in fishing businesses and access to credit to grow their operations (Giner, Hobeika and Fischetti, 2022[41]; OECD, 2021[4]).

In the OECD, instances of constraints and obstacles women face are sometimes well-documented and progress is being made. For example, in 2021, several women in the Norwegian fisheries industry reported their experiences of harassment (sexual and non-sexual) in the sector. In response, the Norwegian Maritime Authority and the Norwegian Equality and Anti-Discrimination Ombud signed an agreement to intensify efforts to prevent harassment in the fisheries sector. The primary goal of this agreement is to raise awareness about harassment and provide strategies to prevent and combat it. The initiative focuses on training and educating leaders, safety representatives and union representatives within the industry (Norwegian Maritime Authority, 2024[44]).

In the aquaculture sector, barriers to entry also persist, often contingent upon cultural, social and practical norms dictating the extent of women’s involvement. For instance, research has identified various factors such as religious beliefs, cultural traditions and societal expectations influencing women’s participation levels. Additionally, challenges such as lack of support from family or community, feelings of inferiority, limited decision-making power, and inadequate government support have been reported in countries like Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines (Bosma et al., 2018[45]).

Discussions surrounding gender issues in fisheries and aquaculture often focus on economic and social aspects, yet it is vital to recognise the potential hazards these sectors pose to women – especially when considering potential mitigation policies (OECD, 2021[4]). Marine environments are increasingly contaminated with pollutants such as marine debris, microplastics and various chemicals, all of which pose significant health risks. Pregnant women and children are especially vulnerable, as certain toxins like mercury, commonly found in fish, can have adverse effects on their health. Moreover, microplastics have been documented to traverse the placental barrier, potentially impacting the health of unborn children (Lloyd-Smith and Immig, 2018[46]).

In poor coastal communities and along shorelines, where women often work as supplementary fishers or other roles (e.g. net mending), they are at heightened risk of exposure to harmful chemicals and waste that bioaccumulate along shorelines (OECD, 2021[4]). Furthermore, women employed in seafood processing, a sector often staffed by women, frequently experience health issues, including musculoskeletal problems, due to the demanding nature of their work (S.M. Shaikh et al., 2016[47]; Tran et al., 2016[48]).

In addition, a lack of safety for women in the industry can prevent them from effectively performing their jobs, with issues ranging from male-dominated environments onboard ships to a lack of appropriate safety wear and equipment in women’s uniforms/clothing sizing in some cases (AMSA, 2024[49]; MTS, 2024[50]). Acknowledging and addressing these gender-specific vulnerabilities is essential for effectively managing risks and ensuring the well-being of women who work across fisheries and aquaculture.

Governments play a major role in ensuring that gender-inclusive outcomes are achieved across sectors through mechanisms such as laws, regulations, strategy setting and gender-targeted budgeting. To tackle gender imbalances in fisheries and aquaculture, policymakers are increasingly turning to gender mainstreaming, along with additional frameworks and tools that address the root causes of inequality and drive change (OECD, 2024[1]; OECD, 2019[19]).5

The FAO database of information on national laws and regulations on food, agriculture and natural resource management, which covers fisheries and aquaculture (FAOLEX) was searched using the keywords “gender,” “woman” or “women”. The FAOLEX database spans 24 years (2000-24) and includes various text types: constitutions, policies, legislation, regulations and miscellaneous documents. The search identified 264 relevant policies.6 The vast majority (97%) of policies identified originate from non‑Members. While unclear, one potential reason for this may be because the vast majority of literature on women’s role in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors is focused on issues of visibility in emerging economies and that research is often conducted from a development perspective (Calhoun et al., 2016; Kleiber et al., 2015).

An interesting point about the nature of policies related to fisheries and aquaculture with gendered considerations is that, from the examples listed in Table 8.1, many of the policies are not specific to fisheries and aquaculture. Instead, many of the policies in the examples below are part of broader policies, such as those aimed at gender equality more broadly or general food and agricultural policies. This highlights the potential for horizontal conversations across policy communities. It should however be noted that the FAOLEX database does not contain information on gender policies when they are legally treated at a higher (cross-sectoral) level, with no reference to food, agriculture or natural resource management.

Table 8.1 includes a selection of policies to serve as illustrative examples of the types of policies and initiatives that exist in relation to gender-related issues in activities including fisheries and aquaculture in the countries and territories covered in this report.

Underlying gender mainstreaming as well as other approaches to integrate a gender lens into policymaking is the need for timely and quality gender data to inform their use and implementation and evaluate their effectiveness. Data are needed that consider factors like race, age, gender and socio-economic status – and how they intersect and influence access to policies – to understand and address gender-specific issues, define policy goals for gender-responsive policy making that ensures policies reflect the needs of all citizens and track progress (OECD, 2024[1]; OECD, 2023[10]). The lack of gender-disaggregated data thus presents a significant challenge for further integrating gender considerations into policy making for the fisheries and aquaculture sector.

Gender-disaggregated data are also required to effectively implement approaches such as gender mainstreaming at the relevant geographical scale. The diversity of gender roles and cultural norms across different regions means that a one-size-fits all policy response to promote the inclusivity of women in fisheries and aquaculture may not be appropriate and recognising these complexities is important when designing gender-inclusive policies.

Moreover, collecting evidence on the impact of oceans’ degradation on women’s health, well-being and employment opportunities, with a focus on the most vulnerable and through an intersectionality lens, would also be beneficial for better understanding women in fisheries and aquaculture. Such data would provide insights into the specific challenges women face in these sectors and inform policy measures to address them effectively (OECD, 2021[4]).

Gaps in gender data are not unique to the fisheries and aquaculture sector. For example, in areas such as environmental protection, data disaggregated by gender remains inconsistent in both OECD Members and non-Members, with less than 40% of data being gender-disaggregated (PARIS21, 2023[58]; OECD, 2024[1]; OECD, 2019[19]). Common approaches across sectors could help in developing resource-efficient methodologies for data collection. A few countries such as Finland, Spain and Sweden have already explicitly incorporated actions or commitments related to collecting data on the basis of gender or other characteristics (OECD, 2024[1]).

There is a lack of sex disaggregated data and information on the role of women in fisheries value chains and evidence on how greater participation of women in fisheries and aquaculture could benefit the sector, and societies in general, remains scarce. This is notably the case for OECD Members, as the literature tends to focus on small-scale fisheries in developing and emerging economies (Freeman and Svels, 2022[59]; NOAA, 2020[60]). The fact that, in many places, women also play crucial roles in aquaculture and within larger seafood companies remains poorly documented (Liontakis et al., 2020[61]).

This general lack of information poses challenges for policymakers looking to address gender equality and equity in the sector. Therefore, further research and analysis are clearly needed to better understand the problems and effectively implement a gender mainstreaming approach. Key questions policymakers should consider include:

• How can the data gaps with respect to gender issues across the fisheries and aquaculture sector be closed?

• What are the broader impacts of gender inequality and inequity on women as consumers of fish and users of other ocean ecosystem services?

• What approaches have proven effective to address gender equality and equity in fisheries and aquaculture policy?

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