OECD Review of Fisheries 2025

The OECD Review of Fisheries (hereafter “the Review” or “this report”) is the flagship report of the OECD Fisheries Committee, which is published every two years.1 It monitors and evaluates fisheries performance and policies across countries and territories in recent years to help countries investigate how public policies could better support fisheries’ sustainability and contribution to global food security and the ocean economy. The report notably focuses on policies aimed at ensuring the health of fish stocks and government support to capture fisheries.

The 2025 edition of the OECD Review of Fisheries brings together data on fisheries performance – covering both capture fisheries and aquaculture as well as the sustainability of capture fisheries in 41 countries and territories, which are the OECD Members and non-Members participating in the work of the Fisheries Committee and the three other largest producers of fish globally.

The 2025 edition of the Review can be used differently by distinct groups of readers:

• Policymakers will be interested in the key messages and the policy recommendations highlighted at the start of each chapter. Thematic policy briefs summarising the key findings from the report can also be found on the OECD fisheries and aquaculture main web page.

• Researchers and fisheries stakeholders will be interested in the detailed analysis presented throughout the report, as well as the statistics that have been collected and computed for the report, which can be downloaded from the OECD Data Explorer or the OECD fisheries and aquaculture main web page.

Some sections of the report are also useful to various specialised audiences:

• Experts on global food systems will be interested by the detailed data and discussion of the production of fish products, and projections for the future production, which informs on a key and often overlooked aspect of the outlook for food production.

• Climate change experts will be interested in elements which focus on climate change and the future of fisheries, which illustrates how climate change is affecting a sector whose performance is particularly interlinked with natural conditions.

• Gender experts will be interested in the Chapter discussing gender issues in fisheries, which provides an original sector-specific perspective on the issue of gender inequalities.

• Trade and environment experts will be interested by the analysis and discussion of the sustainability impact of support to fisheries, which presents a framework that could inspire ways to evaluate the environmental impact of subsidies in other sectors.

Capture fisheries and aquaculture provide food for billions of people and are critical for global food and nutrition security. Aquatic animals (hereafter referred to as ‘fish’) are a central element of traditional diets in many cultures and are a major source of animal protein and vital nutrients (FAO, 2022[1]; Kawarazuka and Béné, 2010[2]; Khalili Tilami and Sampels, 2017[3]; HLPE, 2014[4]; Béné et al., 2015[5]; Maulu et al., 2021[6]; Béné et al., 2016[7]; FAO, 2024[8]). In 2021, they provided 15% of total animal protein and 6% of all protein consumed globally and accounted for at least 20% of the average per capita protein intake from all animal sources for 3.2 billion people (or 40% of the global population) (FAO, 2022[1]). Fish is a particularly important source of food in developing countries thanks to its relative affordability, availability and accessibility for poor communities. Across the OECD, the estimated annual average per capita consumption of aquatic animals was 24.9 kilogrammes (kg) in 2022, well above the global per capita average of 20.6 kg. However, at the OECD level, these numbers varied from a high of 55 kg per person in Korea to a low of 5.4 kg in Türkiye (FAO, 2022[1]). Fish products are among the most traded food commodities (FAO, 2024[8]). Trade in fish products is particularly important for coastal and insular communities for whom exports constitute a substantial proportion of overall trade, generating earnings and jobs.

As global food security continues to pose a pressing challenge, with an estimated 757  million people suffering from hunger – equating to one out of 11 people in the world in 2023 (FAO et al., 2024[9]), capture fisheries and aquaculture, hold the potential to contribute to more resilient and sustainable food systems that provide affordable nutritious food. In this way fish can also play a key role in achieving key targets pursued by the international community with respect to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 “ending hunger and malnutrition in all its forms” (HLPE, 2014[4]; FAO, 2024[8]).

Fish is a relatively low-carbon food. Fish generally have a lower greenhouse gas emissions intensity of production than other animal food products, both by live weight and by gramme of protein. The lowest emissions-intensive fish, such as small pelagics and certain molluscs, are produced with emissions intensities comparable to those of plant-based protein (Chapter 4). Likewise, algae and seaweeds are increasingly recognised for their rich micronutrient content, and have been identified as a healthy, high-fibre and low-calorie food option. The cultivation of algae and seaweeds generates relatively few emissions, requires relatively little arable land and freshwater and can even support the restoration of aquatic ecosystems (Cai et al., 2021[10]; World Bank, 2023[11]; UNCTAD, 2024[12]). The sector, therefore, has a role to play in achieving resilient food systems that minimise impacts on biodiversity, ecosystems and the climate.

But fish stocks and ecosystems are under stress from climate change, illegal fishing, overfishing and pollution. Sustainably managing fish stocks, and aquaculture production systems and supporting the fisheries sector in ways that do not compromise the health of resources is fundamental to the social, economic and environmental performance of the fisheries sector. Sustainability is also important for the sector’s resilience to shocks, including those caused by climate change. This involves a range of measures to control how much fish can be caught and how, when and where it can be caught, as well as investment in the underlying science.

Ensuring effective fisheries management: Creating an economic, environmental and socially sustainable sector requires fisheries management systems that can constrain fishing activity to levels that protect the health of fish stocks while allowing fishers to operate profitably. There is no perfect management system, and the way that fisheries respond to management action can be complex and unpredictable. Fisheries management must, therefore, be able to adapt to changing circumstances.

Adapting to climate change: The changing climate is increasingly altering marine ecosystems and creating uncertainty in how fish stock health is affected by fishing pressure. Climate induced changes, such as the rise in sea surface temperatures and ocean acidification, are affecting the effectiveness of existing fisheries management measures, highlighting the need to make climate change a central consideration when taking management decisions.

Assessing the status of stocks regularly and accurately: A good understanding of the status of fish stocks is fundamental to a sustainable and productive sector and requires accurate and regular stock assessments. Without stock assessments, fishers are likely missing out on potential profits either through underfishing or overfishing. However, in some countries, very few stocks are assessed, which complicates the job of fisheries managers.

Reducing emissions to contribute to climate mitigation imperatives: Like all economic sectors, fisheries need to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to contribute to national and international efforts to move towards net zero emission economies, calling for mitigation strategies.

Avoiding unintended support policy impacts: Governments regulate and support fisheries to ensure they are productive, sustainable and resilient in the face of external threats. But government support can pose risks to the sustainability and productivity of fisheries when it encourages overfishing and illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. This ultimately compromises fishers’ livelihoods while potentially making them more dependent on support and less competitive in the process.

Preventing illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing: IUU fishing is a major issue for global fisheries. It complicates the stock assessments needed for effective and evidence-based management and causes unfair competition over resources and in markets.

Maintaining effective global co-operation: Regional fisheries bodies (such as regional fisheries management organisations and arrangements) play a key role in regulating the fishing of migratory and straddling fish stocks and fishing on the high seas. International co-operation is, however, key, even when it comes to domestic fisheries policies. As fish stocks cross borders, migrate and are part of complex food chains and ecosystems, fisheries regulation and support have direct impacts beyond countries’ own waters. The importance of collectively working towards more sustainable fisheries has been flagged by a series of international commitments calling for policy reforms (Box 1.1).

This edition of the OECD Review of Fisheries covers 41 countries and territories:

• Thirty OECD Members: All the OECD Members who report data on support to fisheries to the OECD: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Türkiye, the United Kingdom and the United States.

• Eight non-Members who regularly participate in the work of the OECD Fisheries Committee and report data on support to fisheries to the OECD: Argentina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chinese Taipei, Croatia, Indonesia, Peru and Romania.

• The three other largest global producers of fish products: The People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”), India and Viet Nam.

The majority of global fish production is covered. Together, over the period 2020-22, the 41 countries and territories covered in this report accounted for 79% of the global production of aquatic animals by volume (that is, 87% of global aquaculture production excluding seaweeds and 69% of global marine capture fisheries production). They also accounted for 93% of seaweed production from aquaculture. The report covers all top 10 producers of capture fisheries (in volume), with the exception of the Russian Federation, as well as six of the top 10 aquaculture producers (with the exception of Bangladesh, Ecuador, Egypt and Myanmar).2

Throughout the report, average statistics are reported across the OECD Members (and the non-Members, despite the heterogeneity of that group), to provide context for Members to situate the relative performance and sustainability of their fisheries.

Part I reviews available data on the performance and sustainability of fisheries – both capture and aquaculture – in recent years. Chapter 2 focuses on socio-economic performance, reviewing recent trends in production, trade, employment and fleet and discussing the outlook for the next decade based on projections made in the latest edition of the OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook (OECD/FAO, 2024[13]). Chapter 3 then reviews the facts on fish stock health and productivity, based on data collected by the OECD, and discusses how stock status and knowledge have evolved in recent years. Finally, Chapter 4 discusses the impact of climate change on capture fisheries and the outlook for expected changes in fish abundance and location under different climate scenarios.

Part II turns to policies and monitors recent developments in the 41 countries and territories covered in the report. It looks at the management tools governments use to regulate their most valuable fisheries in Chapter 5 and the policies they use to support capture fisheries in Chapter 6. It then investigates how better support policies could help ensure the sustainability of the resource base while maximising benefits for societies in Chapter 7. Finally, Chapter 8 discusses issues related to gender equality in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors and how to better address them.

[7] Béné, C. et al. (2016), “Contribution of Fisheries and Aquaculture to Food Security and Poverty Reduction: Assessing the Current Evidence”, World Development, Vol. 79, pp. 177-196, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.11.007.

[5] Béné, C. et al. (2015), “Feeding 9 billion by 2050 – Putting fish back on the menu”, Food Security, Vol. 7/2, pp. 261-274, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-015-0427-z.

[10] Cai, J. et al. (2021), “Seaweeds and microalgae: An overview for unlocking their potential in global aquaculture development”, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular (2070-6065), No. 1229, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, https://doi.org/10.4060/cb5670en.

[8] FAO (2024), The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2024, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, https://doi.org/10.4060/cd0683en.

[1] FAO (2022), “FAOSTAT: Food Balances (2010-)”, https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FBS (accessed on  2024).

[9] FAO et al. (2024), The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, https://doi.org/10.4060/cd1254en.

[4] HLPE (2014), Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, FAO, Rome, https://www.fao.org/3/i3844e/i3844e.pdf.

[2] Kawarazuka, N. and C. Béné (2010), “Linking small-scale fisheries and aquaculture to household nutritional security: An overview”, Food Security, Vol. 2/4, pp. 343-357, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-010-0079-y.

[3] Khalili Tilami, S. and S. Sampels (2017), “Nutritional Value of Fish: Lipids, Proteins, Vitamins, and Minerals”, Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, Vol. 26/2, pp. 243-253, https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2017.1399104.

[6] Maulu, S. et al. (2021), “Fish Nutritional Value as an Approach to Children’s Nutrition”, Frontiers in Nutrition, Vol. 8, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.780844.

[13] OECD/FAO (2024), OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2024-2033, OECD Publishing, Paris/Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, https://doi.org/10.1787/4c5d2cfb-en.

[12] UNCTAD (2024), An Ocean of Opportunities: The Potential of Seaweed to Advance Food, Environmental and Gender Dimensions of the SDGs, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, New York, NY, https://unctad.org/publication/ocean-opportunities-potential-seaweed-advance-food-environmental-and-gender-dimensions.

[11] World Bank (2023), Global Seaweed New and Emerging Markets Report 2023, World Bank Group, Washington, DC, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/environment/publication/global-seaweed-new-and-emerging-markets-report-2023.