Building on the emerging challenges of teacher shortages across some OECD education systems (see Chapter 1), policymakers can explore policy responses informed by efforts in other systems. Examples gathered from the EPO Survey 2024 reveal diverse, recent initiatives to address this need. These range from local-level approaches, such as reducing barriers to entering the profession, fostering collaborative work structures, and increasing career mobility, to more systemic efforts like enhancing career pathways, reviewing salary incentives, and implementing campaigns to elevate the status and prestige of teaching.

Balancing teacher supply and demand is an urgent priority for education systems aiming to ensure high-quality, equitable teaching and learning outcomes. In response, education systems are increasingly exploring flexible career pathways that allow for dynamic movement in and out of the profession. This approach can not only help address immediate staffing needs but also align with broader labour market trends favouring adaptability and mobility. Survey responses showed a stronger focus on teacher attraction than on retention according to the EPO Survey 2024.

Regarding attraction, two-thirds of respondents prioritised raising the profession's status, enhancing institutional leadership, and diversifying pathways into teaching (Figure 2.1). While attracting new candidate types received less emphasis, 64% of systems considered it important. Notably, Brazil and Spain were the only systems prioritising teacher retention over attraction.

Of the most frequently identified policy areas to attract teachers, improving the status of the profession, and opening up diverse pathways, are of highest priority in early childhood and care, while the need to attract new types of candidates is observed most frequently in secondary education (Figure 2.2).

Increasing teacher supply appears to be an encompassing priority across many education systems. Evidence collected by the OECD suggests that most education systems are focused on increasing the overall size of the teacher workforce, according to analysis of the policy examples provided through the EPO Survey 2024. About 90% of participating education ministries indicated they had introduced policies since January 2023 that seek to attract teachers and educational leaders across any level of education. Relatively few systems highlighted policies that aim to attract teachers to targeted areas of specialisation or locations. For example, England (United Kingdom) and Peru have created a bonus payment to attract teachers to positions that are hard-to-staff.

Additionally, addressing teacher retention challenges to decrease attrition and teacher demand is considered a priority of high or very high importance for education systems for the period ahead (Figure 2.3), with aspects of retention most often reported for the secondary education level (Figure 2.4). About two-thirds of participating education ministries indicated they had introduced policies since January 2023 that seek to retain teachers and educational leaders across any level of education. The most commonly identified policy areas include ensuring successful completion of initial education and transitions into employment and improving daily working conditions. For example, this includes reducing stress and workloads, supporting well-being, and focusing on supporting novice teachers, academic staff and institutional leaders to thrive in their first years of practice.

However, addressing these priorities calls education systems to reflect on the broader context in which they operate. Addressing the resulting emerging needs, along with pre-existing ones, will require education systems a deeper rethinking of how to reorganise the teaching workforce. While addressing teacher retention remains an important policy focus, there is increasing recognition that attrition can also present opportunities for renewal and diversification within the profession. Modern workforce trends highlight the benefits of enabling teachers to transition in and out of the profession, bringing in diverse skills and experiences from other sectors. Education systems are exploring policies that accommodate flexible career paths, acknowledging that dynamic in-routes and exits may better align with the aspirations of younger generations and evolving labour market trends (OECD, 2024[3]).

Teacher supply and demand are shaped by a variety of factors, as outlined in Figure 2.5. On the demand side, factors identified include the size of the school age population, the duration and coverage of compulsory education, learning time/teaching loads, or graduation requirements. On the supply side, factors such as professional prestige, relative salaries and incentives, working conditions, and position availability play a role. Similarly, teacher preparation, certification and career structure also matter for teacher supply.

While some of these factors can be influenced by education policy settings, many are also driven by broader external forces beyond the control of the education sector. For instance, megatrends affecting labour markets, historical motivators such as social mobility and job security, and the global COVID-19 pandemic, which has added pressure to education systems, all can have influence (Biddle, 2021[5]). In parallel, demographic changes – including declining populations and fewer school-aged children – are expected to reduce teacher demand in certain countries and economies.

Responses to the EPO Survey 2024 show a large array of efforts undertaken in education systems focused particularly on teacher supply. The following section therefore identifies some of these policy efforts, to propose them as policy responses for policymakers. That said, when exploring them, they should remain mindful of the factors shaping teacher shortages on the demand side. Other OECD reviews and working papers provide an in-depth exploration (Santiago, 2002[4]; OECD, 2019[6]).

This section outlines policy efforts undertaken across three key areas to address teacher shortages: increasing the pool of teachers in the workforce, better allocating teachers where they are needed most and making teaching more attractive. The complexity and variability of teacher shortages mean that there is no one-size-fits-all solution. Short-term policy responses to increase teacher supply can address urgent needs, but longer-term structural responses are also essential for creating flexible and strategic responses to teacher shortage challenges. Policymakers must therefore balance immediate interventions with strategies for equitably allocating teachers to areas of greatest need, while ensuring teaching is attractive and supportive for the workforce.

The following policy responses aim to expand the number of teachers in the workforce, especially in response to immediate shortages.

Reducing barriers to entry and completion by creating more affordable pathways into teaching is a key policy response for addressing targeted shortages. This approach aims to increase the number of entrants into initial teacher education or alternative pathways, while also supporting candidates to complete their qualification. For example:

• In England (United Kingdom), bursaries and scholarships for up to GBP 30 000 are available tax-free for initial teacher education students in priority secondary subjects such as chemistry, computing, mathematics and physics. These financial incentives are designed to attract more applications. Additionally, Targeted Retention Incentive payments of up to GBP 6 000 after-tax are offered to early-career teachers in these subjects who choose to work in disadvantaged schools.

• In the United States, financial support initiatives for students enrolled in initial teacher education programmes have been introduced to reduce barriers to entry and facilitate successful completion. States such as Arizona, Mississippi, Texas, Washington and Washington DC have experienced increases in enrolments and completions between 2008/09 and 2021/22. Identified factors contributing to this success include federal pandemic relief funds, paid residencies for students, the implementation of Grow Your Own (GYO) initiatives. GYO programmes support local community members in becoming teachers by offering tuition reimbursement, scholarships, and other supports (see Annex A for further details).

• In Australia, the Commonwealth Teaching Scholarships provide financial support to new undergraduate and postgraduate students in exchange for teaching in government schools or government-run early learning centres for a period equivalent to their study duration. Between 2024 and 2028, the programme will offer up to 5 000 scholarships of up to AUD 40 000 for undergraduate and up to AUD 20 000 for postgraduate students commencing full-time study in accredited initial teacher education programmes. Additionally, a top up payment of AUD 2 000 may be available to those undertaking their final professional placement in remote areas.

• From July 2025, Australia will also introduce the Commonwealth Prac Payments, aimed at assisting students in managing the costs associated with mandatory placements in fields such as teaching, nursing and midwifery, and social work. The initiative seeks to reduce financial barriers to entry and improve completion rates in these fields.

While these initiatives seem promising in their aim to address immediate shortages, evidence on the long-term effectiveness of these measures is still inconclusive or limited due to the recency of implementation. It is therefore crucial that education systems monitor outcomes, and remain alert to potential consequences that can undermine long-term teacher retention (OECD, 2005[7]; OECD, 2019[6]). An example of these could be reduced teaching quality or negative experiences for pre-service or early-career teachers, particularly if they lack access to high-quality initial teacher education and adequate support early in their careers. Moreover, while financial incentives and streamlined certification pathways have been shown to increase enrolments temporarily, without concurrent efforts to enhance teaching quality and ensure comprehensive preparation, such measures can lead to high attrition rates among new entrants. Policymakers must therefore balance the need for quick fixes with sustainable, evidence-based workforce planning (Kelly, Sim and Ireland, 2018[8]). An example of the actions Iceland has taken to increase enrolments in initial teacher education is included in Annex A.

Encouraging re-entry of teachers who have transitioned to other careers aligns with a broader vision of teaching as a dynamic profession. While education systems should aim to reduce attrition due to factors such as poor working conditions and low job satisfaction, not all types of departures should be viewed as problematic. This approach recognises the value of diverse career experiences, which can enhance teaching quality and drive innovation, while also reflecting broader labour market trends towards increasing career mobility, fluid and diversified career trajectories, and longer working lives (OECD, 2024[3]). Education systems could benefit from flexible re-entry pathways that facilitate smooth transitions back into the profession, attracting teachers who may wish to return later in their careers and who could fill workforce gaps, bringing new skills with them. Several education systems are implementing initiatives to facilitate easier re-entry into the profession and encourage teachers to return after career changes or breaks:

• In England (United Kingdom), a pilot programme is testing the effectiveness of financial incentives in encouraging teachers to return to the workforce, recognising the importance of this strategy for addressing staffing needs, particularly in the context of childcare expansion reforms.

• In Portugal, ‘exceptional and temporary’ measures are being introduced to encourage the return of teachers who have left the profession. This initiative targets schools most affected by teacher shortages by, among others, providing salary increases for teachers who are eligible for retirement, in order to help these schools be staffed with experienced professionals (Diário da República, 2024[9]).

• In Australia, the National Teacher Workforce Action Plan includes a review of the number of registered teachers not currently in the workforce. Following this, a plan will be developed to attract these teachers back to the profession, which may include identifying alternative roles beyond traditional classroom teaching, such as mentoring (Australian Government Department of Education, 2024[10]).

This represents a significant opportunity for education systems to clarify re-entry routes at multiple stages across a career, and effectively benefit from the support of teachers who are returning to the profession. However, many education systems may lack accurate data on the number and characteristics of potential returnees and their motivations, which could limit their ability to capitalise on this opportunity strategically. Working with initial teacher education institutions to collect data about their graduates could be a first step for this.

Education systems are adopting creative and flexible solutions to address immediate and acute shortages and ensure that classrooms remain staffed. These strategies include increasing the pool of new teachers (e.g. those enrolled in initial teacher education) and optimising the allocation of existing teachers to cover shortage areas. While some approaches offer short-term relief, others present opportunities to rethink workforce flexibility and staffing models.

• In Australia, Western Australia has implemented an initiative allowing final year pre-service teachers to work as relief teachers under limited registration, creating a new pool of teachers to alleviate immediate shortages.

• In Portugal, higher education teachers and PhD researchers with appropriate pedagogical preparation, are being employed in schools to alleviate these shortages (Diário da República, 2024[9]).

• Similarly, Germany has also adopted measures enabling academics to teach in subject areas experiencing shortages.

• In Ireland, a pilot teacher-sharing scheme was introduced in 2023 to offer teachers of high-demand subjects full-time teaching contracts and increase teaching hours for those employed part-time. Under this initiative, teachers are shared between a cluster of two schools. This pilot is set to run for three academic years, aimed at facilitating senior secondary school provision. The Department for Education acknowledged potential challenges around scheduling and travel time and indicated that funding may be provided for timetabling consultancy services or software to support the process. While there is no evidence yet on the scheme’s effectiveness, insights gained from this pilot will be useful for informing future approaches to address teacher shortages.

• In the Netherlands, schools in the five largest cities are piloting alternative scheduling approaches, including adjustments to the curriculum and the use of ‘external professionals’ for teaching. These skilled professionals, who lack formal teaching qualifications, can work up to one day per week or a maximum of 22 hours per month (Arbeidsmarkt Platform Primair Onderwijs, n.d.[11]).

At the same time, according to the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018 results, there is no clear statistically significant link between teachers’ workplace well-being and stress levels in relation to the number of schools in which they work (Figure 2.6). This suggests that the quality of working conditions in these schools – such as balanced workloads and the effective implementation of flexible working arrangements – is likely to play a more pivotal role in the success of these initiatives.

Further analysis reveals that full-time teachers generally report higher levels of job satisfaction compared to part-time teachers across most education systems (Figure 2.7), with this relationship being statistically significant at the OECD level. These findings are important when considering policies that offer flexible workforce models, including full-time or part-time teaching arrangements in one or more schools.

A possible explanation for the higher job satisfaction among full-time teachers is the greater job stability and security they may experience, along with better access to professional development and opportunities to build stronger relationships with colleagues and students (Toropova, Myrberg and Johansson, 2020[13]; McJames, Parnell and O’Shea, 2023[14]). These factors can contribute to a deeper sense of belonging within the school community. While part-time teachers in sharing schemes or similar roles may also achieve these benefits, care must be taken to avoid overburdening them with excessive workloads or unrealistic expectations. Designing part-time positions in a way that achieves flexibility and ensures a satisfying experience is crucial for making the profession more responsive to shortages and appealing to new entrants.

As part of broader systemic policy efforts, efforts to increase the supply of teachers and attract new groups through alternative pathways and models are also common across OECD education systems. These approaches not only open the profession to individuals who might not have previously considered teaching, but they also typically offer fast-tracked entry into the profession. This makes them a potentially valuable mechanism for addressing teacher shortages, as evidenced by the examples discussed below.

As such, alternative pathways are a policy area to increase the supply of teachers, attract new groups of potential teachers, and provide additional flexibility for addressing immediate teacher shortages. These offer options different to traditional routes and often provide routes into the profession for those wishing to train ‘on the job’ or who are working in other careers or roles (European Expert Network on Economics of Education (EENEE), 2023[15]). While the features of these models vary, they typically target individuals without teaching qualifications and aim to recruit diverse candidates with professional experience in other fields, new groups of teachers and career changers.

• Austria has increased the number of initial teacher education students by 17% since implementing their ‘Excellent Profession’ (Klasse Job) strategy (according to the EPO Survey 2024). The strategy focuses on attracting three new groups: career changers, high school students aged 17 or 18 considering a teaching degree and people interested in teaching specific subjects as a secondary job. Additionally, from 2025, Austria will implement the Students Teach Students programme, to provide high school students with a taste of the teaching profession.

• Austria also offers career changers opportunities in early childhood and care, and lower and upper secondary level secondary education (“Quereinstieg”). Typically, these persons come from the private sector or research fields and can teach general education subjects. So far, more than 6 250 persons have registered, with about 2 940 certified career changers ready to apply for job offers, and over 700 employed for the 2024 school year.

• Luxembourg has introduced new initial teacher preparation pathways, including a Bachelor in Pedagogical Training, aimed at individuals with related degrees. Additionally, the government has committed to expanding training opportunities to alleviate, among other things, teacher shortages in the early childhood sector.

• New Zealand’s Teacher Supply Package includes initiatives to attract overseas teachers, recognising migration as a key avenue to increase teacher supply. The programme provides grants to support overseas teacher recruitment, meet hiring costs, and assist with relocation, tapping into a broader pool of prospective teachers, particularly in the face of migration trends.

• In Australia, the High Achieving Teachers programme is an employment-based alternative pathway into teaching designed to recruit high-achieving university graduates to work in schools facing teacher shortages while they complete their teaching qualification. The programme then supports participants to complete an accredited teaching qualification and will fund an additional 1 500 places from 2025 through new pilot initiatives.

• Teach For All operates as an alternative model that aims to address educational disparities by recruiting top university graduates for two-year teaching commitments in underserved schools (Teach For All, n.d.[16])). This model combines a philosophy of attracting the "best and brightest" to solve educational challenges with a fast-tracked teacher preparation process (typically 6-7 weeks) (Price & McConney, 2013) and seeks to inspire a personal calling among participants to addressing educational inequity both in and outside of the classrooms. Rather than supplying a significant proportion of teachers, the goal is to develop enough leaders to drive systemic transformation in education.

For alternative pathways to effectively contribute towards increased teacher supply and quality teaching outcomes, it is essential to maintain rigorous standards that ensure that individuals entering the profession are well-prepared for the classroom and the context in which they work. Just like for initial teacher education, preparation must include well-structured and supported experiences that also build a deep understanding of the educational environments where teachers will be working. These factors play an important role in facilitating transitions and supporting teachers to remain in the profession (OECD, 2019[6]).

In the coming years, it will be crucial to ensure that alternative pathways and models not only adequately prepare teachers for the classroom, but also serve as a lever for directing teachers to areas of greatest need. Some promising programmes are already beginning to achieve this goal. For instance, the Grow Your Own (GYO) initiatives in the United States, highlighted in Annex A, aim to recruit teachers from local communities, providing support for certification and building a diverse teaching workforce.

Addressing teacher shortages requires more than bringing new teachers into the profession. It also involves managing and distributing teachers where they are most needed. The policy responses discussed in this section not only aim to address teacher recruitment but also offer solutions for improving career flexibility and providing multiple pathways to enter or return to the profession. For example, by allowing teachers to work in various environments or move across education levels and locations, these policies aim to promote more dynamic and flexible careers.

While such approaches can help alleviate immediate teacher shortages, there are concerns about ensuring that teachers are consistently placed where they are most needed in the long term. Striking a balance between flexible, short-term measures and long-term strategic workforce planning will remain a key area of attention for policymakers.

One approach to addressing teacher shortages is to develop a more flexible workforce that leverages the skills of other professionals while deepening individual teacher expertise based on strengths and preferences (McGrath, 2023[17]).

In the short term, creating hybrid staff profiles, such as digital integration specialists or data analysts, can complement teachers’ skills. This collaborative model allows teachers to learn from these professionals, enhancing their capabilities in areas like digital technology and data analysis to support student learning outcomes. The aim in the longer term should be for teachers to also acquire these skills themselves, building deep subject-matter expertise and digital competencies, rather than relying on supplementary roles. By investing in teacher preparation and professional development, education systems can gradually reduce dependency on external support and ensure sustainable improvements in teaching quality (OECD, 2023[18]).

Evidence suggests that hybrid roles can facilitate strategic collaboration, shifting education systems from a transactional approach to a more integrated model of digital transformation. Similar strategies have been successfully implemented in the health sector (Box 2.1), but careful evaluation is needed before scaling these models in education.

While the concept of "boundary spanners" has shown promise in the health sector, its applicability to education remains to be considered with care. In the short term, roles like digital integration specialists can help address immediate skill gaps and support teachers in adapting to new technologies. However, without clear definitions and role boundaries, there is a risk of generating uncertainty among teachers and creating dependencies that could undermine the goal of enhancing teachers’ own skills.

High-performing education systems like Estonia and Korea show that a more sustainable approach is to focus on enhancing teachers' digital competencies directly (OECD, 2021[22]). Evidence from the Education Endowment Foundation also suggests that roles like teaching assistants are most effective when they complement, rather than substitute, teacher instruction (Education Endowment Foundation, 2021[23]).

Given the mixed evidence from other countries, it is crucial to evaluate these hybrid models carefully before widespread adoption. The ultimate objective should be to empower teachers to acquire these skills themselves, ensuring that any structural changes support long-term capacity building rather than only serving as temporary fixes.

Another policy response that can help education systems to manage their existing workforce involves team-teaching and collaborative models. While still recent, these approaches not only offer potential solutions to teacher shortages, but also aim to address the pressing issue of teacher workload and the need to retain teachers in the profession.

In many education systems, teachers are required to engage in a wide variety of tasks, many of which are non-teaching related (see Figure 2.8). This signals the breadth and complexity of teachers’ work and indicates that they may often be doing tasks that take them away from their core teaching responsibilities.

Although many non-teaching tasks, such as professional development and teamwork with colleagues are important for improving teaching quality and building stronger relationships with students (El Islami, Anantanukulwong and Faikhamta, 2022[24]), managing teacher workloads requires a careful balance. Education systems must protect teaching time while providing space for teachers to engage in activities that can support the holistic development of students (See also Chapter 3).

At school-level, structures and staffing models in some education systems are exploring alternative ways to balance teaching and non-teaching responsibilities. Rather than reducing time spent on core teaching tasks, these models redistribute responsibilities across teams of teachers with different specialisations and skill sets. This intends to allow individual teachers to focus on key teaching and non-teaching tasks relevant to their role, alleviating the need to juggle a wide variety of responsibilities.

Approaches for collaborative teaching explored in this section seek to foster opportunities for collaborative work among colleagues, planning, connection, and targeted student support, with more flexibility within the day to undertake this work. Furthermore, if well implemented, team teaching can be particularly beneficial for novice teachers, as working with experienced teachers can help improve their self-efficacy and job satisfaction (OECD, 2019[26]). Some examples from the United States include:

• The Next Education Workforce in the Mesa public school system (Arizona), which builds teams of 3-5 educators with distributed expertise to work with cohorts of 60-90 students, shifting away from a traditional one-teacher, one-classroom model where work is done largely in isolation. Teams consist of educational leaders, professional educators, paraeducators and community educators. The team-teaching approach has shown positive impacts on teacher retention and student outcomes. In Mesa, teachers working in the team-teaching models report lower attrition rates, receive higher evaluations, and are more likely to recommend teaching to a friend. These teachers are also more likely to remain teaching in their district than their colleagues in traditional classroom models, even when accounting for differences in characteristics (CPRE, 2024[27]). To-date, the model operates in over 40 schools.

• Opportunity Culture is a staffing model that adopts a Multi-Classroom Leader role, and other team-teaching roles, to boost the reach of excellent teaching to more students. Under this model, schools are not required to fill every teacher vacancy. The model rethinks the roles of teachers and the structures in which they work: each teacher in the Multi-Classroom Leader role leads a small teaching team, providing guidance and on-the-job coaching while continuing to teach. Schools redesign schedules to provide additional school-day time for teacher planning, coaching and collaboration (Opportunity Culture, n.d.[28]). Surveys showed high satisfaction and a desire to continue the initiative in their schools. There is also evidence of improved student learning in the Texas district in the 2020/21 pandemic school year (Opportunity Culture, 2024[29]). At the time of writing, 65 sites in 13 states across the United States have used these staffing models.

• In Mississippi, the McComb school district focuses on reimagining the role of peer-to-peer mentorship and brings together collaborators across the district and within schools. This model requires restructuring teaching time and creating flexible spaces for new roles, offering teachers greater autonomy (National Center on Education and the Economy, 2024[30]).

Similarly, a 2018 study of blended and personalised learning models from eight schools and districts in the United States highlighted the potential effectiveness of shifting away from traditional models in certain contexts. The study identified that shifting the roles of teachers away from the one-teacher one-classroom model, resulted in highly collaborative teams, and intensive coaching cycles that enhanced teaching quality and personalised learning for students (Christensen Institute, 2018[31]).

Team teaching models offer several benefits that can help alleviate teacher shortages in three ways:

These approaches offer potential solutions for mitigating teacher shortages for the shorter term, but there is mixed evidence regarding the pertinence of this approach for the longer term. In high-performing systems, such as Singapore, there is a stronger emphasis on individual teacher-led instruction – while seeing the profession as highly collaborative – and less reliance on shared teaching responsibilities (Asian Development Bank, 2022[33]). This suggests that the effectiveness of team-teaching models may be context-dependent and require thorough evaluation.

Furthermore, although team-teaching models show promise for some contexts, their implementation needs to be mindful of managing workload and stress. It will be important to ensure that responsibilities are distributed evenly across staff with the appropriate skills, and that sufficient resources are allocated to support teachers in managing larger student cohorts. This will involve rethinking the structures and organisation of schools to encourage collaboration and allocating expertise where it is most needed (Podolksy et al., 2016[34]). Furthermore, when moving towards more flexible forms of education, the tensions related to physicality and distance, and autonomy and support, need to be carefully considered to ensure quality teaching and learning outcomes (OECD, 2018[35]).

Another policy response that some countries and economies are implementing for increasing the teacher supply is to introduce workforce arrangements that enhance teachers’ mobility within and outside of the teaching profession. This includes allowing teachers to work concurrently in other fields, catering to individuals with diverse professional interests who want to teach, but might otherwise consider the opportunity cost of teaching. Embracing models that allow teachers to move in and out of the profession can also make teaching more appealing to younger generations who value diverse career experiences (OECD, 2024[3]). Examples of such initiatives are the following:

• In the Netherlands, teachers who combine their teaching job with a job in another field are referred to as “hybrid teachers”. It is estimated that around 50 000 teachers work in this way. Several initiatives have been developed to encourage and facilitate hybrid teaching. For example, the Brainport Eindhoven region, in collaboration with various educational institutions and companies, has started a pilot to give technicians the opportunity to engage in hybrid teaching for 4 to 8 hours a week in vocational education and training (VET). However, this pilot is currently limited to regional implementation and has not yet been scaled more widely.

• The French Community of Belgium has introduced innovative policies, such as creating a new “expert status” that allows individuals to combine teaching with work in other sectors. Although still in the early stages of implementation, this initiative is promising, as it may attract high-achieving professionals who value the flexibility to pursue multiple careers.

• Additionally, the French Community of Belgium is introducing “guest teachers”, which opens the education system to professionals from diverse backgrounds. This initiative aims to allow school boards in secondary education, part-time arts education, and adult education centres to convert teaching hours into credit to appoint guest lecturers. The initiative has been extended to primary education and secondary special needs education. A similar initiative exists in the Flemish Community of Belgium, where guest teachers with at least three years of professional experience are deployed for temporary assignments to bring their expertise into schools.

In higher education, mobility between industry and government could be promoted, while in VET, opportunities could be expanded for in-company trainers to become VET trainers, or for industry professionals to teach VET part-time and vice versa (OECD, 2021[36]).

These policies show promise and align with broader trends towards more fluid and diversified careers (OECD, 2024[3]), but their implementation requires careful management to ensure positive working environments, as well as to avoid fragmentation within the teaching profession and disruptions to student learning. Furthermore, although increasing mobility within and outside of the teaching profession can help diversify career pathways, evidence from high-performing systems suggests that maintaining a focus on building deep expertise within the teaching profession may better support student outcomes. Systems like Singapore have historically prioritised strong internal professional development (Gomendio, 2017[37]) over external mobility, highlighting the need for a balanced approach. Furthermore, differences between education levels mean that successful models in one context may not transfer easily to others. Therefore, such policies should be piloted and evaluated locally before being expanded on a larger scale.

Teacher shortages and high rates of attrition disproportionally affect disadvantaged schools, threatening the quality of education in high-poverty, hard-to-staff schools and vulnerable communities (Billingsley and Bettini, 2019[38]). The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) data show that schools serving more disadvantaged students tend to suffer from more shortages of staff than schools serving students from more privileged backgrounds (OECD, 2023[39]). This inequitable distribution of staff is driven by several factors, including teachers’ personal preferences, working conditions, and available incentives.

Examples of policies that aim to attract teachers to hard-to-staff schools, targeted areas of specialisation or locations are outlined below. Other initiatives can include enhanced leadership opportunities, accelerated permanent employment status, extra leave/holidays, and/or subsidised accommodation, and recruitment campaigns to attract teachers in areas of need.

• In England (United Kingdom), financial incentives are offered to teachers in shortage areas. In addition, promotional campaigns aim to build interest in teaching, with a focus on subjects such as maths, physics, chemistry, languages, and computing. Internships for undergraduates and Master’s Degree students in these subjects further aim to strengthen the pipeline of future teachers.

• In Peru, a bonus payment encourages teachers to take up posts in rural and border areas. However, research has shown that while the bonus improves retention in these schools, it can have negative effects on surrounding schools, redistributing shortages rather than resolving them, and with no direct effects on student learning. The authors argue these results are due to the poor pedagogical skills of the teachers being mobilised by the scheme and suggest that a reasonable policy alternative is a scheme that targets talented teachers with larger bonuses (Castro and Esposito, 2022[40]).

• In Victoria (Australia), the Teaching Academy of Professional Practice partnerships are targeted teacher education and university-school partnerships that aim to better prepare teachers to work in disadvantaged and diverse settings. These give pre-service teachers mentoring and professional development opportunities to improve teacher readiness to work in these school communities.

At the same time, efforts to attract teachers to hard-to-staff schools face a number of challenges. Many financial initiatives are short-term, and dependent on external funding. They are also limited in their ability to address the systemic issues that often drive teachers to leave the profession (McPherson, Lampert and Burnett, 2024[41]). Poor working conditions – such as heavy workloads and limited resources and levels of administrative and collegial support – are common in hard-to-staff contexts (Pogodzinski, 2014[42]). Efforts to ensure an equitable distribution of teachers are evolving to include strategies that embrace flexible career models.

Rather than solely aiming to retain teachers in hard-to-staff schools for extended periods, education systems are exploring approaches that support temporary assignments, shared teaching roles, and rotational positions. These models can allow teachers to gain diverse experiences while addressing immediate staffing needs in challenging contexts. That said, caution is needed. For the longer term, evidence from high-performing systems like Estonia suggests that prioritising stable, well-supported teaching positions may be more effective in ensuring equitable outcomes (Santiago, 2016[43]). Schools will also need to intentionally nurture relationships, establish routines and culture, and create opportunities for informal professional development to ensure positive outcomes for teachers (Menzies, 2023[32]).

Research indicates that strategies and supports to prepare teachers for challenging school contexts specifically should be an important element of both alternative pathways and initial teacher education (McPherson, Lampert and Burnett, 2024[41]). Evidence shows that teachers are most effective in hard-to-staff schools when they receive evidence-based professional development tailored to the diverse and/or high-needs settings in which they work, and when they hold practical knowledge of the context of their students’ lives (Bastian and Marks, 2017[44]).

Another key aspect for ensuring equitable staff distribution across schools is the design and implementation of equitable funding allocation mechanisms. Equitable funding systems require reliable evidence on the adequacy of funding, particularly in relation to socio-economic disadvantage or geographical location (OECD, 2019[6]). That said, a well-designed funding formula can provide an efficient, equitable, stable and transparent method for distributing resources.

Research on teacher preferences also suggests that teachers typically prefer to work close to their homes, families and friends, even when they obtain their initial teaching qualification elsewhere (OECD, 2019[6]). In hard-to-staff locations where teacher shortages persist, initiatives such as Grow Your Own can play a vital role in meeting local teacher demand (see Annex A). However, further evaluative evidence is needed to assess long-term impact of these initiatives on teacher supply.

Although a great deal of research focuses on teacher remuneration as a key lever for addressing teacher supply challenges, it is only one of many factors that can render a profession attractive. In addition to salaries, working conditions, opportunities for progressional growth, and professional prestige are important to make teaching careers attractive, not only financially but also intellectually (OECD, 2024[25]; OECD, 2023[45]). The following policy responses are areas for policy attention to meet expectations of individuals with varying intrinsic and external motivations for pursuing a teaching career.

Career structures that support progression can help improve teacher supply by making the profession more intellectually and financially appealing for prospective teachers, while also keeping teachers in the profession for longer (McGrath, 2023[17]). Introducing differentiated career paths can offer teachers greater scope for continued professional growth after 15 or 20 years on the job, particularly in systems with flat career structures (OECD, 2019[26]). Limited growth opportunities may otherwise lead teachers to leave the classroom and take up roles in school leadership or education administration, or the profession altogether. Well-designed career structures, by contrast, can increase long-term motivation and retention by providing recognition for good performance, and match individuals to responsibilities that fit their skills and interests. They provide opportunities for roles and responsibilities (Patil, 2023[46]), that make the profession more diverse and attractive (Snoek, Dengerink and de Wit, 2019[47]).

Teachers’ careers can offer both vertical and horizonal opportunities for progressional growth. Vertical career paths typically follow a ladder structure, with teachers progressing through formal positions or roles that come with distinct responsibilities and increasing levels of responsibility within the classroom. In contrast, horizontal career paths can allow teachers to focus on areas of expertise, either within inside or outside the classroom, often involving specialisation in a particular aspect of the teaching profession. In such roles, expert and experienced teachers may take on responsibilities such as curriculum or instructional leadership, subject specialists, or mentoring and coaching responsibilities (Wenner and Campbell, 2017[48]).

Ensuring there are other opportunities for teachers to remain in the classroom, while facilitating career growth, are important features of several education systems:

• In Singapore, a notable example of how supporting career progression improves retention, teachers can pursue career progression (vertical) and specialisation (horizontal) along a three-track career ladder. Teachers can develop and progress along different fields of excellence: teaching track, school leadership track and senior specialist track. These avenues allow teachers to remain in the classroom and continue their professional growth. A similar three-track ladder exists in early childhood teaching. This enhances the intellectual attractiveness of the profession, allowing teachers to see opportunities for growth, challenge and responsibility.

• In Victoria (Australia), learning specialists are teachers who remain close to the classroom, while being able to share expertise and contribute to professional development within schools. Across OECD countries and economies, similar new instructional specialist and master teacher roles for excellent teachers offer higher remuneration and different responsibilities.

• In Maryland (United States), a “career ladder” allows teachers to take on new responsibilities with increased pay, such as coaching or supervising newer educators and working with student teachers, as their careers progress (University of Maryland, College Park, 2024[49]).

Viewing teachers’ and leaders’ careers as a continuous learning journey with various avenues for progression and flexibility is important for increasing the intellectual appeal of the profession and retaining teachers for longer (Box 2.2).

Relative salaries and incentives can impact the supply of potential teachers, influencing decisions on whether to become a teacher, where to work, and how long to stay in teaching or whether to return to the profession (Santiago, 2002[4]).

According to OECD estimates, teachers’ salaries are lower than those of similarly educated workers in almost all countries and economies with available information, although they tend to increase with the level of education (OECD, 2024[25]). For instance, many education systems struggle to recruit teachers in key subject areas such as mathematics, science, or technical skills, where higher salaries are available in the general labour market. Comparatively low salaries are frequently regarded as one of the factors contributing to shortages of qualified candidates for school-level positions. Lower salaries can impede a system’s ability to attract high-quality individuals (OECD, 2019[6]).

In OECD countries and economies where data are available, teacher salaries have generally remained stagnant over time. Increased teachers' nominal salaries have often failed to translate into real wage gains, as Figure 2.9 shows. However, some education systems have made efforts to increase absolute salaries over time, growing more than 20% in real terms in Lithuania, Chile and Colombia (OECD, 2024[25]).

Reforming teacher compensation can be challenging due to the complexities involved in salary adjustments (OECD, 2019[6]). Policymakers must navigate the lengthy process and associated uncertainties. Compensation reforms take time to impact the workforce, so this policy response should be viewed as part of long-term workforce planning strategy rather than an effective tool for addressing immediate and acute teacher shortages.

While compensation and benefits are important policy levers, there is no one-size-fits-all solution to the design of effective salary scales. Systems must consider their unique economic context, including local labour market conditions, private sector wages, and the scope for competitive starting salaries. Policymakers should also consider how to balance pay rises across a teacher’s career and explore performance-based pay differentiation. Higher expenditure on salaries may also reduce the resources available for other areas critical to student outcomes (OECD, 2019[6]).

In some contexts, monetary incentives have shown promising results for allocating teachers where they are most needed. For example, performance bonuses, recruitment bonuses, loan forgiveness, higher salaries and equitable funding for schools have been found effective for attracting teachers to roles in challenging schools (Education Endowment Foundation, 2023[53]).

Based on the policies identified through the EPO Survey 2024, financial incentives are one of the most common levers used by education systems to distribute teachers to areas of greatest need. For instance:

• In England (United Kingdom), upfront bursaries and early-career retention payments have been introduced for key subjects. Evidence has shown that these incentives positively impact teacher supply overall, with upfront bursaries having a sustained impact on long-term teacher supply (McLean, Tang and Worth, 2023[54]). Early-career retention payments have been also found to reduce the attrition rate of eligible teachers (Sims and Benhenda, 2022[55]).

• In Australia, financial incentives for rural and remote teaching positions have been found to improve initial recruitment, but will have less effect on long-term retention unless these incentives are combined with supports such as housing assistance, professional development, and opportunities for career advancement (Lampert et al., 2021[56]).

The effectiveness of financial incentives depends on the design, size and context in which they are applied, such as the general framework for teacher employment and career progression. They may alleviate shortages in rural areas, although incentives can be less effective for more remote locations (Pugatch and Schroeder, 2014[57]). Furthermore, evidence suggests that while financial incentives such as scholarships and grants encourage entry into the profession, they do not always sustain long-term retention (See et al., 2020[58]). It is therefore important that additional supportive measures are considered in addition to these.

Beyond financial reasons, several complex personal and professional factors motivate teachers to teach in certain subjects or locations (Blackmore, Hobbs and Rowlands, 2023[59]). In many OECD countries and economies, teachers and leaders are civil servants and have a high level of job security or access to benefits like pension programmes, tax exemptions, family allowances and annual leave entitlements that workers in comparable private sector positions do not (OECD, 2019[6]). Professional factors, such as opportunities to take on extra responsibilities and to engage in research and innovation, also need to be considered.

Improving the prestige of the teaching profession and its societal value are key factors for attracting a high-quality workforce. However, key indicators suggest there is a fair way to go. Before the pandemic, TALIS 2018 data suggested that teaching was a first career choice for 66% of survey respondents across OECD, but only 26% felt that the profession was valued in society (OECD, 2020[12]).

Enhancing the attractiveness of the teaching profession over the next few years will require education systems to carefully consider the deeper systemic changes that are necessary. These include improvements to working conditions, career prospects, remuneration, recruitment and retention. Policymakers may also need to explore more targeted interventions, including quick wins or “low-hanging fruit” approaches. Many countries and economies are making comprehensive and multi-faceted efforts to increase the attractiveness of the teaching profession and to position teaching as a career of choice.

Amid these efforts, it is crucial to reflect on the narrative that surrounds the teaching profession. Recent research underscores the need for new narratives to make teaching more appealing. In some education systems, existing narratives support the “profession in crisis” discourse, while alternative narratives highlight teachers' job satisfaction and their desire to remain in the field (Towers et al., 2022[60]). Current and emerging initiatives aimed at reshaping these narratives range from promotional campaigns that emphasise the value of a teaching career to support mechanisms that enable candidates to enter initial teacher education.

These campaigns often incorporate elements from behavioural sciences, including social identity nudges (Druckman, 2011[61]) and positive messaging framing (Mols, 2012[62]) to promote the societal impact of teaching. For instance, using language that emphasises shared values and goals between potential teachers and current teachers can encourage individuals who see themselves as part of this group to consider teaching as a career (in-group/out-group dynamics). Additionally, they tap into social proof by employing techniques such as user testimonials and the “wisdom of the crowd” to persuade others to follow suit. Examples of such initiatives include the following (Figure 2.10):

• England (United Kingdom): Following a 2018 campaign “Every Lesson Shapes a Life”, which established a brand for the teaching profession for the first time, the government has implemented the “Get Into Teaching” initiative (UK Government Department for Education, 2024[63]). This multi-channel campaign, coupled with a comprehensive candidate support offer and digital tools, aims to make teaching a career of choice. It also supports candidates in applying for teacher initial education. “Get Into Teaching” is exploring innovative activities to build a pipeline of future interest in teaching, focusing particularly on shortage subjects. This includes offering teaching internships for undergraduates and Master’s students in fields like mathematics, physics, chemistry, languages and computing. In early childhood and care, England (United Kingdom) has also launched the “Do Something Big” national marketing campaign (UK Government, 2024[64]).

• The Flemish Community of Belgium: The “Teaching Is Giving Everything” (Departement Onderwijs en Vorming, 2024[65]) campaign facilitates information and shares stories that aim to elevate and enhance the status of the teaching profession. The campaign highlights the many benefits of teaching, including the satisfaction in witnessing students’ growth and achievements, as well as attractive employment conditions such as competitive salaries, internet allowances, vacation periods, and, if permanently employed, job security and government pensions.

• The French Community of Belgium: The "Teaching, more than a profession" campaign aims to value and promote the teaching profession. It aims to deconstruct preconceived ideas about teaching and highlight the positive impact that teachers have on the lives of their students. It presents teaching as an enriching profession, carrying a deep meaning and offering many opportunities for personal and professional development (Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles, n.d.[66]).

• Singapore: The Ministry of Education adopts a broad approach in promoting the value and significance of teaching (Singapore Ministry of Education, 2024[67]). It uses various media and platforms to show teaching as an attractive career, focusing on informing prospective candidates about the profession’s value and the wide range of professional opportunities in education. While attributing specific outcomes to these campaigns is challenging due to the interplay of multiple initiatives, Singapore continues to attract high-quality candidates and maintains high teacher retention rates. This success reflects a high societal value placed on the teaching profession.

• Australia: The federal and state and territory governments have introduced a joint initiative which aims to showcase the value and importance of teachers, and encourages the public to consider a career in teaching (Australian Government, 2024[68]). It is part of an AUD 10 million national campaign that celebrates and showcases the work of teachers, as well as the opportunities a career in teaching brings. The initiative encompasses a range of videos and stories from teachers in the profession that share why they choose to teach, their inspirational stories, and the lasting impact they have had on their students.

Simplification and commitment nudges are powerful tools that reduce the cognitive load and friction associated with decision-making (John and Blume, 2018[69]), making it easier for individuals to take desired action (Luo et al., 2021[70]). The "Get Into Teaching" campaign in England (United Kingdom) is an example of this approach. It simplifies the application process through multi-faceted candidate support and digital tools. The campaign’s continuous presence across media reinforces its message, encouraging individuals to commit to teaching. Furthermore, the introduction of teaching internships in shortage subjects facilitates low-risk entry points, particularly for undergraduates and Master’s students, making it easier for them to commit to a teaching career.

Similarly, the Flemish Community Belgium’s “Teaching is Giving Everything” appears to effectively use the principle of reciprocity by proxy – it suggests that people feel a sense of obligation to give back or respond in kind when they receive something valuable, even indirectly (Goldstein, Griskevicius and Cialdini, 2011[71]; Oliver, 2019[72]). By highlighting the personal rewards teachers receive, such as job satisfaction, flexibility, and attractive employment conditions, the campaign appeals to the intrinsic motivations of potential teachers. Additionally, the campaign makes a strong use of narratives and testimonials, thus encouraging them to view teaching as a desirable and achievable career path. According to the social identity theory, people are more inclined to enter a profession when they see relatable and aspirational figures within it.

Singapore’s approach to promoting the teaching profession relies on the concept of high societal respect for teachers. By consistently reinforcing this message, the Ministry creates an authority nudge, and this nurtures a bandwagon effect – where popular opinions become more popular (Farjam, 2020[73]). The broader institutional framework for teachers in Singapore supports this approach, which amplifies the effectiveness of these nudges.

Indeed, overall, these campaigns reflect a sophisticated understanding of behavioural science on the use of nudges to enhance the attractiveness of the teaching profession. However, the long-term success of these efforts will depend on their integration with broader systemic changes. Without addressing underlying issues such as working conditions, reward and recognition, pay, and opportunities for career progression, these campaigns will be limited in their long-term effectiveness.

The success of these campaigns will also depend on the broader societal narrative around teaching and whether candidates see that the reality of the profession meets the expectations set by the campaigns. Finding more mechanisms to meaningfully reward and recognise excellence, particularly in complex environments, can also contribute towards broader messaging that raises the status of the profession, creating a more positive cycle of attracting and retaining teachers.

Drawing from the analysis in this chapter, education policymakers may consider the following steps as they strive to balance teacher demand and supply in the context of global changes, including demographic shifts:

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